Antioxidative effects of Korean red ginseng in postmenopausal women: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

Efficacy and safety of red ginseng extract powder (KGC05pg) in achieving glycemic control in prediabetic Korean adults: A 12-week, single-center, randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

This study was conducted to assess the efficacy and safety of Red Ginseng Extract Powder (RGEP) (KGC05pg; Korea Ginseng Corporation, Daejeon, Korea) in achieving glycemic control in prediabetic Korean adults.

METHODS

The patients of the RGEP group (n = 49) and those of the placebo group (n = 49) were orally given 2 tablets of RGEP and its matching placebo, respectively, at a dose of 500 mg/day twice daily in the morning and the evening within 30 min after meal during a 12-week treatment period. The patients were assessed for glycemic control parameters, such as fasting blood glucose levels, 30-, 60-, 90-, and 120-min blood glucose levels on an oral glucose tolerance test, Hb1Ac levels and glucose area under the curve, insulin resistance parameters, such as homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, c-peptide and insulinogenic index, and hormone parameters, such as glucagon, adiponectin and glucagon-like peptide-1. Moreover, the patients were also assessed for time-dependent changes in dipeptidyl peptidase-4 levels. Finally, the patients were also assessed for incidences of treatment-emergent adverse events and serious adverse events.

RESULTS

There were significant differences in changes in fasting blood glucose and 30-, 60-, 90-, and 120-min blood glucose levels on an oral glucose tolerance test, Hb1Ac levels, glucose area under the curve, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, c-peptide levels and insulinogenic index, glucagon, adiponectin, and glucagon-like peptide-1 levels at 12 weeks from baseline between the 2 groups (P < .05). There was a significant time-dependent decrease in dipeptidyl peptidase-4 levels in the RGEP group (P = .001). There were no cases of treatment-emergent adverse events and serious adverse events in each treatment arm.

CONCLUSION

RGEP might be effective in achieving glycemic control in prediabetic Korean adults.

Effects of Ginseng Consumption on Cardiovascular Health Biomarkers in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Ginseng, with various pharmacological activities, has received increasing attention to improve cardiovascular health (CVH). Therefore, this meta-analysis synthesized the effect of ginseng consumption on biomarkers of CVH in adults. A systematic search was performed in the databases of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase, and the Cochrane Library through July 24, 2023 to screen out English-language randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the effects of ginseng consumption on body composition, blood pressure, vascular stiffness, lipid metabolism, glucose metabolism, insulin resistance, inflammatory cytokines, and adipocytokines in adults. The weighted mean difference (WMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to evaluate the overall effect size, and STATA 12.0 was used for comprehensive analysis. Forty-five studies were included in the meta-analysis. Ginseng consumption significantly reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP) (WMD = -2.57 mmHg, 95% CI = -4.99 to -0.14, p = 0.038), total cholesterol (TC) (WMD = -4.40 mg/dL, 95% CI = -8.67 to -0.132, p = 0.043), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (WMD = -2.81 mg/dL, 95% CI = -4.89 to -0.72, p = 0.008), C-reactive protein (CRP) (WMD = -0.41 mg/L, 95% CI = -0.73 to -0.10, p = 0.010), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (WMD = -2.82 pg./mL, 95% CI = -4.31 to -1.32, p < 0.001). Subgroup analyses suggested that supplementation with ginseng for less than 12 weeks significantly reduced SBP, but 12 weeks or more improved TC and CRP. Ginseng consumption on SBP, TC, and CRP seemed to be more effective on unhealthy participants. The meta-analysis showed that ginseng consumption might have the potential to improve SBP, TC, LDL-C, CRP, and IL-6. These findings suggest that ginseng is a potential candidate for the maintenance of CVH. However, our results had high heterogeneity. Future high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of ginseng consumption.

The beneficial potential of ginseng for menopause

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has long been used not only as a food supplement but also as a treatment for various diseases. Ginseng originated in South Korea, which later spread to China and Japan, has a wide range of pharmacological activities including immune, endocrine, cardiovascular, and central nervous system effects. KRG is produced by repetitions of steaming and drying of ginseng to extend preservation. During this steaming process, the components of ginseng undergo physio-chemical changes forming a variety of potential active constituents including ginsenoside-Rg3, a unique compound in KRG. Pandemic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has affected both men and women differentially. In particular, women were more vulnerable to COVID-related distress which in turn could aggravate menopause-related disturbances. Complementary and alternative medicinal plants could have aided middle-aged women for several menopause-related symptoms during and post COVID-19 pandemic. This review aimed to explore the beneficial effects of KRG on menopausal symptoms and gynecological cancer.

Phytotherapeutic approach for conquering menopausal syndrome and osteoporosis

Women face a significant change in their reproductive health as menopause sets in. It is marred with numerous physiological changes that negatively impact their quality of life. This universal, transition phase is associated with menopausal and postmenopausal syndrome, which may spread over 2-10 years. This creates a depletion of female hormones causing physical, mental, sexual and social problems and may, later on, manifest as postmenopausal osteoporosis leading to weak bones, causing fractures and ultimately morbidity and mortality. Menopausal hormone therapy generally encompasses the correction of hormone balance through various pharmacological agents, but the associated side effects often lead to cessation of therapy with poor clinical outcomes. However, it has been noticed that phytotherapeutics is trusted by women for the amelioration of symptoms related to menopause and for improving bone health. This could primarily be due to their reduced side effects and lesser costs. This review attempts to bring forth the suitability of phytotherapeutics/herbals for the management of menopausal, postmenopausal syndrome, and menopausal osteoporosis through several published research. It tries to enlist the available botanicals with their key constituents and mechanism of action for mitigating symptoms associated with menopause as well as osteoporosis. It also includes a list of a few herbal commercial products available for these complications. The article also intends to collate the findings of various clinical trials and patents available in this field and provide a window for newer research avenues in this highly important yet ignored health segment.

Brain plasticity and ginseng

Brain plasticity refers to the brain's ability to modify its structure, accompanied by its functional changes. It is influenced by learning, experiences, and dietary factors, even in later life. Accumulated researches have indicated that ginseng may protect the brain and enhance its function in pathological conditions. There is a compelling need for a more comprehensive understanding of ginseng's role in the physiological condition because many individuals without specific diseases seek to improve their health by incorporating ginseng into their routines. This review aims to deepen our understanding of how ginseng affects brain plasticity of people undergoing normal aging process. We provided a summary of studies that reported the impact of ginseng on brain plasticity and related factors in human clinical studies. Furthermore, we explored researches focused on the molecular mechanisms underpinning the influence of ginseng on brain plasticity and factors contributing to brain plasticity. Evidences indicate that ginseng has the potential to enhance brain plasticity in the context of normal aging by mediating both central and peripheral systems, thereby expecting to improve age-related declines in brain function. Moreover, given modern western diet can damage neuroplasticity in the long term, ginseng can be a beneficial supplement for better brain health.

Protective effects of ginseng and ginsenosides in the development of osteoarthritis (Review)

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic inflammatory joint disease. Traditional chinese medicine provides a resource for drug screening for OA treatment. Ginseng and the associated bioactive compound, ginsenosides, may reduce inflammation, which is considered a risk factor for the development of OA. Specifically, ginsenosides may exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress activities, and inhibit extracellular matrix degradation by suppressing the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Notably, specific ginsenosides, such as compound K and Rk1, may physically interact with IκB kinase and inhibit the associated phosphorylation. Thus, ginsenosides exhibit potential as therapeutic candidates in the management of OA. However, the low water solubility limits the clinical applications of ginsenosides. Numerous effective strategies have been explored to improve bioavailability; however, further investigations are still required.

Ginsenosides: changing the basic hallmarks of cancer cells to achieve the purpose of treating breast cancer

In 2021, breast cancer accounted for a substantial proportion of cancer cases and represented the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women worldwide. Although tumor cells originate from normal cells in the human body, they possess distinct biological characteristics resulting from changes in gene structure and function of cancer cells in contrast with normal cells. These distinguishing features, known as hallmarks of cancer cells, differ from those of normal cells. The hallmarks primarily include high metabolic activity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and resistance to cell death. Current evidence suggests that the fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells affect the tissue structure, function, and metabolism of tumor cells and their internal and external environment. Therefore, these fundamental hallmarks of tumor cells enable tumor cells to proliferate, invade and avoid apoptosis. Modifying these hallmarks of tumor cells represents a new and potentially promising approach to tumor treatment. The key to breast cancer treatment lies in identifying the optimal therapeutic agent with minimal toxicity to normal cells, considering the specific types of tumor cells in patients. Some herbal medicines contain active ingredients which can precisely achieve this purpose. In this review, we introduce Ginsenoside's mechanism and research significance in achieving the therapeutic effect of breast cancer by changing the functional hallmarks of tumor cells, providing a new perspective for the potential application of Ginsenoside as a therapeutic drug for breast cancer.

Protective effects of Panax ginseng against doxorubicin-induced cardiac toxicity in patients with non-metastatic breast cancer: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

INTRODUCTION

Anthracycline-based chemotherapy increases the risk of cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction. Recently, evidences from in vitro experiments and animal studies have shown that ginsenosides may exert cardiovascular protection against cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction. Here, we aimed to evaluate this effect in a clinical situation.

METHODS

In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, women with non-metastatic breast cancer whose left ventricular ejection fraction was ≥ 50% were randomly assigned in 1:1 ratio to receive ginseng (1 g/day) or placebo besides standard chemotherapy. Echocardiographic measurements were performed at baseline, after the fourth, and eighth chemotherapy cycles. High-sensitive cardiac troponin I was assessed at baseline and after the 4th cycle. The primary endpoint of the study was change in left ventricular ejection fraction. Cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction was defined as a drop in left ventricular ejection fraction of ≥ 10% from baseline.

RESULTS

Results from 30 patients were included in the final analysis (15 patients in each group). In the intervention and control groups, left ventricular ejection fraction was dropped from 62.0 ± 0.9% to 60.7 ± 1.0% (difference = -1.3 ± 1.1%) and from 63.27 ± 1.1% to 58.0 ± 1.3% (difference = -5.27 ± 0.8%), respectively (difference = 3.97%, p = 0.006) at the end of the fourth cycle of chemotherapy. After the eighth cycle of chemotherapy, the mean left ventricular ejection fraction was increased by 0.8 ± 1.3% from baseline in the intervention group, whereas the placebo group experienced a reduction of -7.3 ± 1.4% (difference = 8.1%, p-value < 0.001). None of the patients in the ginseng group in comparison to 1(6.7%, p-value = 0.5) and 5 (33.3%, p-value = 0.02) patients in the placebo group developed cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction after the fourth and eighth cycles, respectively. High-sensitive cardiac troponin I levels were not significantly different between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Prophylactic ginseng supplementation may protect against doxorubicin-induced early cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction and early decline in left ventricular ejection fraction in breast cancer patients.

Effects of ginseng consumption on the biomarkers of oxidative stress: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Oxidative stress (OS) is a key factor involved in the initiation and development of chronic diseases. Despite its widespread acceptance as an antioxidant, the effects of ginseng on OS in human clinical trials have not been comprehensively analyzed. Therefore, this study aimed to synthesize the results of previous randomized clinical trials (RCTs) examining the impact of ginseng consumption on OS indicators. PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane databases were searched for articles on the effects of ginseng consumption on oxidative stress markers up to March 20, 2023. Standardized mean difference (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to assess effect sizes. Twelve RCTs with 15 effect sizes revealed that the effects of ginseng lowered serum malondialdehyde (MDA) levels (SMD = 0.45, 95% CI: -0.87, -0.08; p = 0.03) and significantly increased the serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (SMD = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.45; p = 0.04), oxidative dismutase (SOD) (SMD = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.21, 0.57; p < 0.0001), glutathione (GSH) (SMD = 0.36; 95% CI: 0.11, 0.61; p = 0.005), and glutathione reductase (GR) (SMD = 0.56; 95% CI: 0.31, 0.81; p < 0.0001) levels compared to the effects of placebo. However, the effects on serum glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT) were not significant. Moreover, subgroup analysis based on intervention duration showed that ginseng consumption increased GPx (SMD = 0.91, 95% CI: 0.05, 1.78; p = 0.039) and CAT (SMD = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.27, 1.21; p = 0.002) levels after more than 4 weeks of intervention. According to the results of this meta-analysis, ginseng supplementation dramatically reduced MDA levels and increased TAC, SOD, GSH, and GR levels. Our results open up a new line of defense against oxidative stress-induced diseases.

Korean Ginseng Berry Extract Enhances the Male Steroidogenesis Enzymes In Vitro and In Vivo

PURPOSE

Testosterone hormonal replacement is the most commonly prescribed solution for men with reproductive issues; however, this treatment has various drawbacks. Hence, the identification of a natural product that promotes steroidogenesis is urgently needed. Ginseng is a popular traditional medicine. This study aimed to investigate steroidogenic effects of Korean ginseng berry extract (GBE; Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) in vitro and in vivo.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vitro model, mouse Leydig cells were treated with varying concentrations of GBE, and the levels of steroidogenesis-related genes and proteins and testosterone were measured using western blotting, qRT-PCR, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Similarly, in an in vivo model using lipopolysaccharide-injected C57BL/6J mice, expression of steroidogenesis-related genes and proteins and testosterone levels were analyzed. Additionally, sleep deprivation was used to simulate common life stressors related to late-onset hypogonadism (LOH) and the natural effects of aging. Mice were fed sham or GBE before being subjected to paradoxical sleep deprivation.

RESULTS

In vitro, GBE induced steroidogenic effects by increasing the levels of enzymes associated with steroidogenesis, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), CYP11A1, and CYP17A1. In vivo, GBE significantly increased mRNA and protein levels of steroidogenic enzymes. Furthermore, the synthetic testosterone levels in mouse Leydig cell supernatants and blood sera were increased. In the sleep deprivation study, mice fed GBE showed increased testosterone production and survival under such stressful conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

GBE increased mRNA and protein levels of steroidogenesis-related enzymes STAR, CYP11A1, and CYP17A1. These key enzymes induced the increased production of testosterone both in vivo and in vitro. Thus, GBE might be a promising therapeutic or additive nutritional agent for improving men's health by increasing steroidogenesis or improving LOH.

Panax ginseng and aging related disorders: A systematic review

The aging process predisposes numerous homeostatic disorders, metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Changes in diet and lifestyle and therapeutic adjuvants are essential to minimize the effects of comorbidities associated with aging. Natural products such as Panax ginseng have been used to treat and prevent diseases related to aging. This review aims to investigate the effects of Panax ginseng in various conditions associated with aging, such as inflammation, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, neurodegenerative and metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. The ginsenosides, chemical constituents found in Panax ginseng, can inhibit the effects of inflammatory cytokines, inhibit signaling pathways that induce inflammation, and inhibit cells that participate in inflammatory processes. Besides, ginsenosides are involved in neuroprotective effects on the central nervous system due to anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. The use of ginseng extract showed actions on lipid homeostasis, positively regulating high-density lipoprotein, down-regulating low-density lipoprotein and triglyceride levels, and producing beneficial effects on vascular endothelial function. The use of this plant in cancer resulted in improved quality of life and mood. It decreased symptoms of fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and dyspnea, reducing anxiety. Panax ginseng has been shown to exert potent therapeutic benefits that can act as a complementary treatment in managing patients with chronic diseases related to aging.

Ginseng alleviates folliculogenesis disorders via induction of cell proliferation and downregulation of apoptotic markers in nicotine-treated mice

Background

Ginseng is a powerful phytoestrogen with high antioxidant properties.

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Panax Ginseng (PG) on folliculogenesis, proliferation, and apoptosis in the ovary impaired by nicotine.

Methods

Forty adult mice were divided into five groups. Control, sham, and nicotine groups, and co-treated groups of nicotine and ginseng in doses of 0.5 and 1 g/kg. Folliculogenesis was assessed via histopathology and serum evaluation of estradiol, progesterone, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH) by ELISA. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzyme activities both in homogenate tissue and serum were assayed by colorimetric analysis. Apoptotic markers of cytochrome c (Cyt c), Bax, and Bcl-2 were evaluated by RT-PCR. Proliferative index was studied by the Ki-67 immunostaining procedure.

Results

In comparison to the control or sham groups, nicotine significantly reduced the levels of FSH, LH, and estradiol hormones. An insignificant reduction was observed in the progesterone hormone. Nicotine reduced all healthy follicle numbers, except primordial (P = 0.001). Malondialdehyde (MDA) was increased in tissue and serum in the nicotine group (P = 0.01). Serum catalase (CAT) and enzymatic activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) both were reduced in tissue and the serum, in the nicotine group. Nicotine induced a reduction in the proliferative indexes of granulosa and theca cells in pre-antral and antral follicles (P = 0.001). However, its effect on the proliferative index of stroma cells was not significant. Apoptotic markers were elevated in the nicotine group (P = 0.001). Co-treatment with ginseng elevated all sex hormones, increased healthy follicles, and reduced tissue or serum lipid peroxidation, compared with the nicotine group (p < 0.05). Co-Treatment with ginseng also reduced the expression of apoptotic markers and increased the proliferative indexes in granulosa and theca cells in pre-antral and antral follicles and also in stroma cells, in comparison to the nicotine group (P = 0.001). All above-mentioned alterations following treatment with ginseng were remarkable, especially in the dose of 1 g/kg.

Conclusion

This study showed ginseng protects folliculogenesis via alteration of hypothalamic- pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis, induction of proliferation in ovarian somatic cells, reduction of lipid peroxidation, and downregulation of apoptotic markers in the mouse ovary, treated with nicotine.

Clinical Effects of Korean Red Ginseng in Postmenopausal Women With Hand Osteoarthritis: A Double-Blind, Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Although many menopausal Asian women use herbal remedies for joint pain, there are no studies evaluating the efficacy of Korean red ginseng on osteoarthritis symptoms in postmenopausal women. The purpose of this study is to analyze antioxidant enzyme activity, oxidative stress markers, and pain scores before and after red ginseng consumption, to assess its effect in postmenopausal women. Methods. This prospective, double-blind, randomized controlled trial enrolled 52 postmenopausal women who presented with hand edema and/or pain and were diagnosed as degenerative arthritis of the hand. Patients were randomly assigned to the red ginseng (RG) group (supplemented with 3 g/d of RG for 12 weeks) or the placebo group. Changes in pain and Disability of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand (DASH) scores, antioxidant enzyme, oxidative stress markers, serum estradiol levels, and endometrial thickness were analyzed. Results. The pain score and DASH score were significantly improved in the RG group (both p < 0.05). The improvement of pain score at rest, during work or sport, and DASH score was significant compared to that of the placebo group. The superoxide dismutase level increased (p < 0.05) and the malondialdehyde level decreased (p < 0.05) significantly in the RG group, while none of the antioxidative factors showed a significant change in the placebo group. Serum estradiol levels and endometrial thickness were not affected by RG supplementation. Conclusion. RG may be an effective dietary supplement for postmenopausal women with degenerative osteoarthritis of the hand. It may relieve pain and improve antioxidative activity without the risk of endometrial thickening.

Safety of red ginseng and herb extract complex (RHC) in menopausal women: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Various treatments are used to relieve menopausal symptoms for women. However, herbal substances are frequently used as complementary and alternative therapies as other treatments can increase ovarian and breast cancer risk. While the herbal substances’ therapeutic effect is essential, the safety of their use is considered more important. This study aims to confirm the safety of red ginseng and herb extract complex (RHC), which are used to relieve menopausal symptoms.

Methods

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study recruited and divided 120 women experiencing menopausal symptoms into the RHC and placebo groups (60 women per group). Subjects were administered with 2 g RHC or placebo daily for 12 wk. Adverse reactions, female hormonal changes, and uterine thickness were observed and recorded on wk 0, 6, and 12. Hematologic and blood chemistry tests were also conducted.

Results

The reactions of the subjects who received RHC or placebo at least once were analyzed. A total of six adverse reactions occurred in the RHC group, while nine occurred in the placebo group; common reactions observed in both groups were genital, subcutaneous tissue, and vascular disorders. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the administration groups (p = 0.5695), and no severe adverse reactions occurred in both groups.

Conclusion

This study confirms the safety of daily intake of 2 g of RHC for 12 wk by menopausal women.

Korean red ginseng attenuates Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced inflammatory response in endometrial cancer cells and an endometriosis mouse model

Background

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most common endocrine disrupting chemical used as a plasticizer. DEHP is associated with the development of endometrium-related diseases through the induction of inflammation. The major therapeutic approaches against endometrial cancer and endometriosis involve the suppression of inflammatory response. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a natural product with anti-inflammatory and anti-carcinogenic properties. Thus, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of KRG on DEHP-induced inflammatory response in endometrial cancer Ishikawa cells and a mouse model of endometriosis.

Methods

RNA-sequencing was performed and analyzed on DEHP-treated Ishikawa cells in the presence and absence of KRG. The effects of KRG on DEHP-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA levels in Ishikawa cells were determined by RT-qPCR. Furthermore, the effects of KRG on the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) pathway, COX-2, and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 after DEHP treatment of Ishikawa cells were evaluated by western blotting. In the mouse model, the severity of endometriosis induced by DEHP and changes in immunohistochemistry were used to assess the protective effect of KRG.

Results

According to the RNA-sequencing data, DEHP-induced inflammatory response-related gene expression was downregulated by KRG. Moreover, KRG significantly inhibited DEHP-induced ERK1/2/NF-κB/COX-2 levels in Ishikawa cells. In the mouse model, KRG administration significantly inhibited ectopic endometriosis growth after DEHP-induced endometriosis.

Conclusions

Overall, these results suggest that KRG may be a promising lead for the treatment of endometrial cancer and endometriosis via suppression of the inflammatory response.

The Effects of Korean Red Ginseng on Biological Aging and Antioxidant Capacity in Postmenopausal Women: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Study

Postmenopausal women are vulnerable to aging and oxidative stress due to reduced estrogen. Previous studies have shown that Korean red ginseng (KRG) has beneficial effects on aging and antioxidant capacity. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of KRG on biological aging and antioxidant capacity in postmenopausal women. This study conducted a double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. The participants were randomly administered KRG or a placebo, and the following metrics were measured: mitochondria DNA (mtDNA) copy number as an indicator of biological aging and, total antioxidant status (TAS) as a marker of antioxidant capacity. Clinical symptoms of fatigue, as measured by the fatigue severity scale, were assessed before and after KRG administration. There were 63 participants, of whom 33 received KRG and 30 received a placebo. The mtDNA copy number (KRG group: 1.58 ± 2.05, placebo group: 0.28 ± 2.36, p = 0.023) and TAS (KRG group: 0.11 ± 0.25 mmol/L, placebo group: −0.04 ± 0.16 mmol/L, p = 0.011) increased and the fatigue severity scale (KRG group: −7 ± 12, placebo group: −1 ± 11, p = 0.033) decreased significantly more in the KRG group than the placebo group. KRG significantly increased the mtDNA copy number, total antioxidant status, and improved symptoms of fatigue in postmenopausal women.

Korean red ginseng induces extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways in MCF-7 breast cancer cells and MCF-10A non-malignant breast cells

BACKGROUND

Among non-hormonal treatments, herbal products are frequently used by women. Korean red ginseng (KRG) is one of the popular herbal medicines. KRG could be one option for relieving menopausal symptoms. However, there are still concerns about the safety for long-term use. In order to be used for alleviating menopausal symptoms, the safety of KRG on breast must be ensured. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of KRG on breast cells.

METHODS

MCF-7 and MCF-10A cells were treated with different concentrations of KRG extracts for 48 h. Cell viability was evaluated by MTT assay, and apoptosis by flow cytometry. The expression of apoptosis-related proteins was determined by western blot analysis and estrogen receptor (ER) affinity by ER binding assay.

RESULTS

KRG extract inhibited growth and induced apoptosis of both MCF-7 and MCF-10A cells in dose-dependent manner. KRG extract increased the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins BAX, BAK, and BAD and decreased the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL in both cells. The expressions of Fas and FasL were increased in lower doses, but decreased in higher doses in both cells. Activities of caspase-3, -8 and -9 increased in MCF-10A, while caspase-8 and -9 showed increase in MCF-7. Competition of KRG to E₂ was significant in MCF-7 as KRG dose increased, whereas ER binding was hardly shown in MCF-10.

CONCLUSION

KRG induced apoptosis via extrinsic and intrinsic pathway in MCF-7 breast cancer cells and MCF-10A non-malignant cells. KRG may be safely used with regard to breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women to reduce the vasomotor symptoms.

Chemical constituents of Panax ginseng and Panax notoginseng explain why they differ in therapeutic efficacy

Panax ginseng (Meyer) and Panax notoginseng (Burkill), belonging to the family Araliaceae, are used worldwide as medicinal and functional herbs. Numerous publications over the past decades have revealed that both P. notoginseng and P. ginseng contain important bioactive ingredients such as ginsenosides and exert multiple pharmacological effects on nervous system and immune diseases. However, based on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory, their applications clearly differ as ginseng reinforces vital energy and notoginseng promotes blood circulation. In this article, we review the similarities and differences between ginseng and notoginseng in terms of their chemical composition and pharmacological effects. Their chemical comparisons indicate that ginseng contains more polysaccharides and amino acids, while notoginseng has more saponins, volatile oil, and polyacetylenes. Regarding pharmacological effects, ginseng exhibits better protective effects on cardiovascular disease, nerve disease, cancer, and diabetes mellitus, whereas notoginseng displays a superior protective effect on cerebrovascular disease. The evidence presented in this review facilitates further research and clinical applications of these two herbs, and exploration of the relationship between the chemical components and disease efficacy may be the critical next step.

The antioxidant activities of Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng) and ginsenosides: A systemic review through in vivo and clinical trials

A wide range of studies have steadily pointed out the relation of oxidative stress to the primary and secondary causes of human disease and aging. As such, there have been multiple misconceptions about oxidative stress. Most of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated from chronic diseases cause oxidative damage to cell membrane lipids and proteins. ROS production is increased by abnormal stimulation inside and outside in the body, and even though ROS are generated in cells in response to abnormal metabolic processes such as disease, it does not mean that they directly contribute to the pathogenesis of a disease. Therefore, the focus of treatment should not be on ROS production itself but on the prevention and treatment of diseases linked to ROS production, including types 1 and 2 diabetes, cancer, heart disease, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In this regard, Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been traditionally utilized to help prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes, cancer, inflammation, nervous system diseases, cardiovascular disease, and hyperlipidemia. Therefore, this review was intended to summarize in vivo animal and human clinical studies on the antioxidant activities of KRG and its components, ginsenosides.

Immune Activity of Polysaccharide Fractions Isolated from Korean Red Ginseng

Korean red ginseng (KRG)’s pharmacological efficacy and popular immunomodulatory effects have already been proven in many studies; however, the component of KRG that is effective in immune activity has not been studied before. Therefore, this study extracted and separated KRG for an immune activity comparison. In the water fraction obtained by extracting KRG powder with water, a red ginseng neutral polysaccharide (RGNP) fraction and a red ginseng acidic polysaccharide (RGAP) fraction were obtained. Each fraction was orally administered for 10 days to mice with reduced immunity, and the number of IgM antibody-forming cells (AFCs) in splenocytes was measured to compare the immune activity of the water fractions. The results showed that the RGAP fraction has the greatest number of AFCs. To set the optimal dose of the RGAP fraction, which had the highest immune activity, the AFCs, macrophage activity, and splenocyte subtype in the mice were analyzed. As a result, the number of AFCs was significantly increased in the RGAP fraction compared to RGNP. The intraperitoneal macrophage phagocytosis activity and the number of T cells, B cells, and macrophages in the spleen increased significantly. It can, therefore, be confirmed that immune activity increases by a fraction containing higher RGAP content, and we hypothesize that RGAP activates immune activity.

Investigation of the role of herbal medicine, acupressure, and acupuncture in the menopausal symptoms: An evidence-based systematic review study

Background

Menopause is an important physiological phenomenon in women's lives. Women's concern about taking the hormone treatment to ease menopausal symptoms is increasing. Over the past decade, the use of complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of menopausal problems instead of hormone therapy has increased.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the role of herbal medicine, acupressure, and acupuncture in the menopausal symptoms.

Methods

Data source: related articles were searched from internal scientific databases and external databases of "Web of Scopus, Cochrane, PubMed, Science Direct, Ovid, and Google scholar."

Study Eligibility Criteria

The keywords such as menopause, menopausal symptoms, complementary menopausal medicine, acupuncture in menopause, herbal medicine in menopause, and acupuncture in menopause were searched in the studies from 1987 to 2019. Exclusion criteria were inadequate information in the study, lack of access to full-text articles, animal studies, and reports. At the end of the search, 145 articles out of a total of 400 articles were reviewed.

Results

In various studies, different herbs such as licorice, valerian, soy, sage, ginseng, etc., were used to improve menopausal symptoms. In addition, acupuncture and acupressure were used to reduce menopausal symptoms.

Conclusion

The efficacy and use of complementary and alternative medicine, along with other classical medicine care, can be a new model for improving menopausal symptoms in women. It is recommended that further clinical and review studies be conducted to develop complementary and alternative medicine.

The effect of Korean Red Ginseng on sarcopenia biomarkers in type 2 diabetes patients

BACKGROUND

The elderly population is growing rapidly worldwide and sarcopenia, which is considered as a new geriatric syndrome has become an important issue. In particular, diabetes is known to be an important risk factor for sarcopenia. In this study, we investigated the effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on biomarkers of sarcopenia in middle and old age diabetes patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Participants were randomly allocated to either the placebo or KRG group and took corresponding tablets for 24 weeks. The primary outcomes were changes in sarcopenia biomarkers at week 24. Secondary outcomes were changes in inflammatory and antioxidant markers and lean body mass at week 24.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients completed the study. Follistatin and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) were significantly improved in KRG group. In the subgroup analysis, female postmenopausal patients over the age of 55 showed a significant improvement in serum SHBG, follistatin, and growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF-15) and an attenuated reduction in Troponin T (TNT) after the administration of KRG.

CONCLUSION

Twenty-four week administration of KRG in diabetes patients resulted in a significant improvement in follistatin and SHBG levels, especially in old postmenopausal women. A further, larger population study with a longer follow-up period is warranted to verify and understand the effects of KRG on sarcopenia.

Plant-Derived Bioactives and Oxidative Stress-Related Disorders: A Key Trend towards Healthy Aging and Longevity Promotion

Plants and their corresponding botanical preparations have been used for centuries due to their remarkable potential in both the treatment and prevention of oxidative stress-related disorders. Aging and aging-related diseases, like cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and neurodegenerative disorders, which have increased exponentially, are intrinsically related with redox imbalance and oxidative stress. Hundreds of biologically active constituents are present in each whole plant matrix, providing promissory bioactive effects for human beings. Indeed, the worldwide population has devoted increased attention and preference for the use of medicinal plants for healthy aging and longevity promotion. In fact, plant-derived bioactives present a broad spectrum of biological effects, and their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and, more recently, anti-aging effects, are considered to be a hot topic among the medical and scientific communities. Nonetheless, despite the numerous biological effects, it should not be forgotten that some bioactive molecules are prone to oxidation and can even exert pro-oxidant effects. In this sense, the objective of the present review is to provide a detailed overview of plant-derived bioactives in age-related disorders. Specifically, the role of phytochemicals as antioxidants and pro-oxidant agents is carefully addressed, as is their therapeutic relevance in longevity, aging-related disorders, and healthy-aging promotion. Finally, an eye-opening look into the overall evidence of plant compounds related to longevity is presented.

Supplementation with Korean Red Ginseng Improves Current Perception Threshold in Korean Type 2 Diabetes Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Many Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) patients in Korea take Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) for various reasons. In this study, we investigated the effects of KRG administration on diabetic peripheral neuropathy in T2DM patients.

METHODS

This study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Participants were randomly allocated to either the placebo or KRG group and took corresponding tablets for 24 weeks. The primary outcomes were changes in current perception threshold (CPT) at week 24. Secondary outcomes were altered fasting plasma glucose, HbA1c, and various metabolic and inflammatory markers at week 24.

RESULTS

Sixty-one patients completed the study. The CPT of the lower extremities at various frequencies exhibited significant improvements at week 24 in the KRG group. Other metabolic parameters were not altered after 24 weeks in both groups. In the subgroup analysis, CPT levels were improved in those with a longer diabetes duration or who already had neuropathy at the beginning of the study, and insulin resistance was improved in patients with a shorter diabetes duration.

CONCLUSION

Twenty-four week administration of KRG in T2DM patients resulted in a significant improvement in neuropathy, especially in those with a longer diabetes duration. A further, larger population study with a longer follow-up period is warranted to verify the effects of KRG on diabetic neuropathy.

Efficacy of Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng) for middle-aged and moderate level of chronic fatigue patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

Chronic fatigue (CF) is unexplained fatigue lasting more than 6 months. Korean red ginseng (KRG) is known to have higher anti-fatigue substance than white ginseng. However, its efficacy and safety for CF is unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of KRG on CF by various measurements and objective indicators.

DESIGN

A randomized, double-blind, clinical trial was conducted on 50 patients with CF.

INTERVENTION

Participants were allocated to KRG or placebo group (1:1 ratio) and visited hospital every 2 weeks during taking 3 g KRG or placebo for 6 weeks and followed up 4 weeks after the treatment.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome measurement was fatigue VAS. Secondary outcome measurements included FSS, CFSQ, SRI, scales of various fields (Depression: BDI; Sleep: ISI; Quality of life: EQ-5D 5 L), biochemical test (Antioxidants: d-ROMs, TBARS, BAP, and SOD; Cortisol concentration: salivary cortisol), blinding assessment, and adverse events.

RESULTS

The fatigue VAS declined significantly in each group, but there were no significant differences between the groups. The 2 groups also had no significant differences in the secondary outcome measurements and there were no adverse events. Sub-group analysis indicated that patients with initial fatigue VAS below 80 mm and older than 50 years had significantly greater reductions in the fatigue VAS if they used KRG rather than placebo.

CONCLUSIONS

By our study, KRG did not show absolute anti-fatigue effect but provided the objective evidence of fatigue-related measurement and the therapeutic potential for middle-aged individuals with moderate fatigue.

Extension of Drosophila lifespan by Korean red ginseng through a mechanism dependent on dSir2 and insulin/IGF-1 signaling

Many studies have indicated that Korean red ginseng (KRG) has anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects, thereby inducing many health benefits in humans. Studies into the longevity effects of KRG are limited and have provided contradictory results, and the molecular mechanism of lifespan extension by KRG is not elucidated yet. Herein, the longevity effect of KRG was investigated in Drosophila melanogaster by feeding KRG extracts, and the molecular mechanism of lifespan extension was elucidated by using longevity-related mutant flies. KRG extended the lifespan of Drosophila when administrated at 10 and 25 μg/mL, and the longevity benefit of KRG was not due to reduced feeding, reproduction, and/or climbing ability in fruit flies, indicating that the longevity benefit of KRG is a direct effect of KRG, not of a secondary artifact. Diet supplementation with KRG increased the lifespan of flies on a full-fed diet but not of those on a restricted diet, and the longevity effect of KRG was diminished by the mutation of dSir2, a deacetylase known to mediate the benefits of dietary restriction. Similarly, the longevity effect of KRG was mediated by the reduction of insulin/IGF-1 signaling. In conclusion, KRG extends the lifespan of Drosophila through Sir2 and insulin/IGF-1 signaling and has potential as an anti-aging dietary-restriction mimetic and prolongevity supplement.

Effects of ginseng supplementation on selected markers of inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The present meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the efficacy of ginseng administration on serum level of inflammatory biomarkers. We performed a systematic search of all available randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conducted up to June 2018 in the following electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Google Scholar. RCTs that investigated the effect ginseng supplementation on high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were included for final analysis. A total of seven RCTs were included in the meta-analysis. Results indicated significant reduction in IL-6 (mean difference [MD]: -0.265 pg/ml, 95% CI [-0.396, -0.135], p < .001) and TNF-α (MD: -2.471 pg/ml, 95% CI [-2.904, -2.039], p < .001) and no significant change in hs-CRP (MD: -0.125 mg/L, 95% CI [-0.597, 0.347], p = .604). Although there was publication bias across studies, trim and fill analysis showed that results from unpublished studies could not change the results for CRP. However, removing one study in sensitivity analysis did reveal a significant reduction in CRP. We conclude that ginseng supplementation significantly lowered IL-6 and TNF-α but did not significantly lower CRP. However, these findings were not robust, because they showed sensitivity for CRP and IL-6, and future long-term well-designed dose-escalating trials are required.

Ginsenoside Rg3: Potential Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Indication in Metastatic Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is still one of the most prevalent cancers and a leading cause of cancer death worldwide. The key challenge with cancer treatment is the choice of the best therapeutic agents with the least possible toxicities on the patient. Recently, attention has been drawn to herbal compounds, in particular ginsenosides, extracted from the root of the Ginseng plant. In various studies, significant anti-cancer properties of ginsenosides have been reported in different cancers. The mode of action of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) in in vitro and in vivo breast cancer models and its value as an anti-cancer treatment for breast cancer will be reviewed.

Red ginseng monograph

Ginseng has been traditionally used for several millennia in Asian countries, including Korea, China, and Japan, not only as a nourishing and tonifying agent but also as a therapeutic agent for a variety of diseases. In recent years, the various effects of red ginseng including immunity improvement, fatigue relief, memory improvement, blood circulation improvement, antioxidation, mitigation of menopausal women's symptoms, and anticancer an effect have been reported in clinical as well as basic research. Around the world, there is a trend of the rising consumption of health functional foods on the level of disease prevention along with increased interest in maintaining health because of population aging and the awareness of lifestyle diseases and chronic diseases. Red ginseng occupies an important position as a health functional food. But till now, international ginseng monographs including those of the World Health Organization have been based on data on white ginseng and have mentioned red ginseng only partly. Therefore, the red ginseng monograph is needed for component of red ginseng, functionality certified as a health functional food in the Korea Food and Drug Administration, major efficacy, action mechanism, and safety. The present red ginseng monograph will contribute to providing accurate information on red ginseng to agencies, businesses, and consumers both in South Korea and abroad.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Decreases Fibrotic and Invasive Nature of Endometriosis by Modulating miRNA-27b: In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

This research aimed to evaluate the potential therapeutic effects of Rg3 on endometriosis and identify target miRNAs. We designed an in vitro study using human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs) obtained from patients with endometriosis and an in vivo study using mouse models. HESCs were treated with Rg3-enhanced red ginseng extract (Rg3E); real-time PCR and microarray profiling, transfection, and western blot were performed. Mouse endometriosis models were developed and supplemented with Rg3E for 8 weeks. Gross lesion size and fibrotic character were analyzed in the mouse models. RNA levels of Ki-67, col-1, CTGF, fibronectin, TGF-β1, MMP2 and MMP9 significantly decreased in HESCs after Rg3E treatment. Microarray analysis revealed downregulation of miR-27b-3p, which is related to fibrosis modulation. Expression of miR-27b-3p was significantly higher in HESCs from patients with endometriosis than that of controls, and Rg3E treatment significantly decreased its expression; the contraction and migration assay revealed significant reductions in both fibrosis and migration potential in Rg3E-treated HESCs from endometriosis patients. A decrease in size and fibrotic character of endometrial lesions from the Rg3E groups was observed in vivo. In conclusion, Rg3 effectively altered fibrotic properties of HESCs from patients with endometriosis, which is likely associated with miR-27b-3p modulation.

Ginseng for managing menopausal woman's health: A systematic review of double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials

BACKGROUND

The aim of this systematic review was to update, complete, and critically evaluate the evidence from placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials (RCTs) of ginseng for managing menopausal women's health.

METHODS

We searched the literature using 13 databases (MEDLINE, AMED, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, 6 Korean Medical, and 3 Chinese Databases) from their inception to July 2016 and included all double-blind RCTs that compared any type of ginseng with a placebo control in postmenopausal women. The methodological quality of all studies was assessed using a Cochrane risk of bias tool.

RESULTS

Ten RCTs met our inclusion criteria. Most RCTs had unclear risk of bias. One RCT did not show a significant difference in hot flash frequency between Korean red ginseng (KRG) and placebo. The second RCT reported positive effects of KRG on menopausal symptoms. The third RCT found beneficial effects of ginseng (Ginsena) on depression, well-being, and general health. Four RCTs failed to show significant differences in various hormones between KRG and placebo controls except dehydroepiandrosterone. Two other RCTs failed to show effects of KRG on endometrial thickness in menopausal women. The other RCT also failed to show the effects of American ginseng on oxidative stress markers and other antioxidant enzymes.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review provided positive evidence of ginseng for sexual function and KRG for sexual arousal and total hot flashes score in menopausal women. However, the results of KRG or ginseng failed to show specific effects on hot flash frequency, hormones, biomarkers, or endometrial thickness. The level of evidence for these findings was low because of unclear risk of bias.

Implications of red Panax ginseng in oxidative stress associated chronic diseases

The steaming process of Panax ginseng has been reported to increase its major known bioactive components, ginsenosides, and, therefore, its biological properties as compared to regular Panax ginseng. Biological functions of red Panax ginseng attenuating pro-oxidant environments associated with chronic diseases are of particular interest, since oxidative stress can be a key contributor to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases. Additionally, proper utilization of various biomarkers for evaluating antioxidant activities in natural products, such as ginseng, can also be important to providing validity to their activities. Thus, studies on the effects of red ginseng against various diseases as determined in cell lines, animal models, and humans were reviewed, along with applied biomarkers for verifying such effects. Limitations and future considerations of studying red ginseng were been discussed. Although further clinical studies are warranted, red ginseng appears to be beneficial for attenuating disease-associated symptoms via its antioxidant activities, as well as for preventing oxidative stress-associated chronic diseases.

Effect of Korean Red Ginseng extraction conditions on antioxidant activity, extraction yield, and ginsenoside Rg1 and phenolic content: optimization using response surface methodology

Background

Extraction conditions greatly affect composition, as well as biological activity. Therefore, optimization is essential for maximum efficacy.

Methods

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) was extracted under different conditions and antioxidant activity, extraction yield, and ginsenoside Rg1 and phenolic content evaluated. Optimized extraction conditions were suggested using response surface methodology for maximum antioxidant activity and extraction yield.

Results

Analysis of KRG extraction conditions using response surface methodology showed a good fit of experimental data as demonstrated by regression analysis. Among extraction factors, such as extraction solvent and extraction time and temperature, ethanol concentration greatly affected antioxidant activity, extraction yield, and ginsenoside Rg1 and phenolic content. The optimal conditions for maximum antioxidant activity and extraction yield were an ethanol concentration of 48.8%, an extraction time 73.3 min, and an extraction temperature of 90°C. The antioxidant activity and extraction yield under optimal conditions were 43.7% and 23.2% of dried KRG, respectively.

Conclusion

Ethanol concentration is an important extraction factor for KRG antioxidant activity and extraction yield. Optimized extraction conditions provide useful economic advantages in KRG development for functional products.

Safety Analysis of Panax Ginseng in Randomized Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review

Background:Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer is one of the most frequently used herbs in the world. The roots of Panax ginseng have been used as a traditional tonic and medicine for thousands of years in Korea and China. Today, ginseng root is used as a dietary supplement and complementary medicine and for adjuvant therapeutics worldwide. The efficacy of ginseng has been studied in a wide range of basic research and clinical studies. However, it has been reported that the results from clinical studies are conflicting, and they depend on the parameters of the protocol design including the conditions of the participants and the types of ginseng used such as red ginseng, white ginseng, fermented ginseng and cultured ginseng. Meanwhile, in addition to clinical efficacy, the safety of ginseng is a highly important matter for customers. With globally increasing demand for Panax ginseng as a dietary supplement or complementary medicine, it is necessary to provide information on its safe use to customers to improve their health conditions. Although the safety of Panax ginseng in pre-clinical studies is well known, the evaluation of safety in clinical studies has so far been insufficient. This systematic review was conducted to assess the safety of ginseng in randomized controlled clinical trials (RCT) over the last 10 years. We chose the last 10 years because many clinical trials have been conducted in the past 10 years, and it will help to understand the recent trends in RCTs of ginseng.

Methods: Articles on ginseng studies were searched with keywords in MEDLINE and four other Korean online database sites. Studies with ginseng as a monopreparation were selected while studies with single administration, preparations combined with other herbs or drug combinations were excluded from the selected studies. Data from the selected studies meeting the criteria were extracted and reviewed in terms of study design, condition and number of participants, type of ginseng, dosage, duration, main results, adverse events and adverse reactions.

Results: Forty-four studies met the selection criteria. These studies covered the efficacy of ginseng in areas such as cardiovascular function, glucose metabolism, sexual function, anti-oxidation, anti-fatigue and psychomotor function. Twenty-nine studies showed positive results while fifteen studies showed no effect. Sixteen studies reported adverse events while five studies had no adverse events. Twenty-three studies did not mention any adverse events. The main adverse events of ginseng reported were general symptoms such as hot flushes, insomnia and dyspepsia with no significant difference in frequency and symptoms between the ginseng and placebo groups. The symptoms were mild and temporary with no serious or severe adverse events.

Conclusion:Panax ginseng showed a very safe profile in a limited number of RCTs with a small number of participants with various conditions ranging from healthy participants to patients with symptoms. However, to increase the usefulness and lower the health risk of Panax ginseng to customers, clinical trials on a larger scale and with a higher standard are necessary to define its efficacy and safety as a dietary supplement or complementary medicine.

Ginsenoside compound K promotes β-amyloid peptide clearance in primary astrocytes via autophagy enhancement

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of ginsenoside compound K on β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide clearance in primary astrocytes. Aβ degradation in primary astrocytes was determined using an intracellular Aβ clearance assay. Aggregated LC3 in astrocyte cells, which is a marker for the level of autophagy, was detected using laser scanning confocal microscope. The effect of compound K on the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/autophagy pathway was determined using western blot analysis, and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used for Aβ detection. The results demonstrated that compound K promoted the clearance of Aβ and enhanced autophagy in primary astrocytes. In addition, it was found that phosphorylation of mTOR was inhibited by compound K, which may have contributed to the enhanced autophagy. In conclusion, compound K promotes Aβ clearance by enhancing autophagy via the mTOR signaling pathway in primary astrocytes.