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Pilcher JJ, Smith PD. Social context during moral decision-making impacts males more than females. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1397069. [PMID: 38836238 PMCID: PMC11148431 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1397069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Moral judgments are often viewed as the outcome of affective and deliberative processes that could be impacted by social factors and individual characteristics. The purpose of this study was to examine the interaction between gender and social context on moral judgment. Participants included 315 undergraduate students (67.3% female). The participants completed the Moral Decision-Making Task while seated at row tables facing the front of the room or round tables facing other participants. The results indicated that males responded in a more utilitarian manner (harm one to save five) than females for moral impersonal (MI) and moral personal (MP) dilemmas regardless of seating arrangements. When seated at round tables, all participants were more likely to respond deontologically (cause no harm) to the moral impersonal dilemmas. In addition, we calculated a moral reasoning difference score for each participant as the difference between the MI and MP scores to represent additional reactivity due to the idea of taking direct action. The moral reasoning difference score was consistent for females but indicated a more deontological response from males at round tables and a more utilitarian response from males at row tables. These results suggest that males are more utilitarian than females and are more likely to be influenced by social context when responding to moral dilemmas. More broadly, the current results indicate that moral judgments are affected by social context particularly in males in ways that have not been incorporated in many models of moral decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- June J Pilcher
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
| | - Phillip D Smith
- Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
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2
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Tutic A, Haiser F, Krumpal I. Social class and moral judgment: a process dissociation perspective. FRONTIERS IN SOCIOLOGY 2024; 9:1391214. [PMID: 38745822 PMCID: PMC11092982 DOI: 10.3389/fsoc.2024.1391214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Do social classes differ in moral judgment? Previous research showed that upper-class actors have a greater inclination toward utilitarian judgments than lower-class actors and that this relationship is mediated by empathic concern. In this paper, we take a closer look at class-based differences in moral judgment and use the psychometric technique of process dissociation to measure utilitarian and deontological decision inclinations as independent and orthogonal concepts. We find that upper-class actors do indeed have a greater inclination toward decisions consistent with utilitarian principles, albeit only to a quite small extent. Class-related differences are more pronounced with respect to deontological judgments, in so far as upper-class actors are less inclined to judgments consistent with deontological principles than lower-class actors. In addition, it is shown that class-based differences in utilitarian judgments are mediated by cognitive styles and not so much by empathic concern or moral identity. None of these potential mediators explains class-based differences in the inclination toward deontological judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Tutic
- Department of Sociology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Friederike Haiser
- Institute of Sociology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Ivar Krumpal
- Institute of Sociology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Lower Saxony, Germany
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3
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Trémolière B, Rateau P. You're heartless, I'm less: self-image and social norms in moral judgment. THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2024; 151:112-137. [PMID: 37288732 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2023.2218637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Are moral judgments to sacrificial dilemmas shaped by a latent social norm? The present research addresses this issue. We report a set of six studies (plus a supplementary one) which question the existence of a social norm in the longstanding deontism/utilitarian debate by relying on two original tools, namely substitution technique and self-presentation paradigm. Study 1 showed that American participants asked to answer like most Americans would do gave more utilitarian responses than control participants who answered in their own name (Study 1). Study 2 showed that participants instructed to answer in a disapproval fashion were more utilitarian than both participants instructed to answer in an approval fashion and control participants. Importantly, no difference was observed between the approval and control conditions, suggesting that participants naturally align their moral judgments with a latent norm they think is the most socially desirable. Studies 3-5 explored in addition the effect of the activation of a deontism-skewed norm using the substitution instruction on subsequent impression formation. For the latter task, participants were instructed to evaluate a random participant selected from a previous study who gave utilitarian-like responses (Studies 3a-3b), or to evaluate a fictitious politician who endorsed either a deontic or utilitarian orientation (Studies 4-5). Although we consistently replicated the effect of substitution instruction, we failed to show that attempts to activate a norm in a given individual shaped their evaluation of other people who do not align with this norm. Finally, we report a mini meta-analysis targeting the pooled effect and homogeneity among our studies.
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Ma C, Lauwereyns J. Predictive cues elicit a liminal confirmation bias in the moral evaluation of real-world images. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1329116. [PMID: 38425561 PMCID: PMC10902465 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1329116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Previous research suggested that predictive cues enhance the preference and reduce the response time for congruent targets during bivalent food evaluation, indicating a confirmation bias. Less is known about how prior processing affects subjective moral evaluation. Here, we used three different types of predictive cues to elicit directional vs. non-predictive prior processing and then asked the participants to perform moral evaluations on a continuous scale from -10 ("very immoral") to +10 ("very moral") with a diverse set of real-world images. Our experimental image database balanced the morality of image content and the volatility of the ratings based on the means and standard deviations in a preliminary study. Ratings, response times, and gaze positions were measured to examine the effects of predictive cues on the moral evaluation of real-world images. We found that the moral ratings were in line with the expectations induced by the cues. Compared to the non-predictive condition, the moral evaluation in the directional conditions was more polarized. For neutral images, the predictive cues tilted the evaluations to positive vs. negative, indicating a decisive liminal influence. High-volatility images were impacted more than low-volatility images in ratings as well as response times. Furthermore, the gaze positions during the interval between the predictive cue and the image showed a spatial displacement in line with the cue instruction, indicating a response bias. Together, the results show that predictive cues elicit a liminal confirmation bias in moral image evaluation, much in the same way as in bivalent food evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyu Ma
- Graduate School of Systems Life Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Johan Lauwereyns
- Graduate School of Systems Life Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
- School of Interdisciplinary Science and Innovation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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5
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Körner A, Deutsch R. Deontology and Utilitarianism in Real Life: A Set of Moral Dilemmas Based on Historic Events. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023; 49:1511-1528. [PMID: 35751175 PMCID: PMC10478346 DOI: 10.1177/01461672221103058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Moral dilemmas are frequently used to examine psychological processes that drive decisions between adhering to deontological norms and optimizing the outcome. However, commonly used dilemmas are generally unrealistic and confound moral principle and (in)action so that results obtained with these dilemmas might not generalize to other situations. In the present research, we introduce new dilemmas that are based on real-life events. In two studies (a European student sample and a North American MTurk sample, total N = 789), we show that the new factual dilemmas were perceived to be more realistic and less absurd than commonly used dilemmas. In addition, factual dilemmas induced higher participant engagement. From this, we draw the preliminary conclusion that factual dilemmas are more suitable for investigating moral cognition. Moreover, factual dilemmas can be used to examine the generalizability of previous results concerning action (vs. inaction) and concerning a wider range of deontological norms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Körner
- University of Kassel, Germany
- University of Wuerzburg, Germany
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Kim PH, Han AJ, Mislin AA, Tuncel E. Retrospective blind spots in reputation management: Implications for perceived moral standing and trust following a transgression. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2023.104461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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7
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Ng NL, Luke DM, Gawronski B. Thinking About Reasons for One's Choices Increases Sensitivity to Moral Norms in Moral-Dilemma Judgments. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023:1461672231180760. [PMID: 37386822 DOI: 10.1177/01461672231180760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Whereas norm-conforming (deontological) judgments have been claimed to be rooted in automatic emotional responses, outcome-maximizing (utilitarian) judgments are assumed to require reflective reasoning. Using the CNI model to disentangle factors underlying moral-dilemma judgments, the current research investigated effects of thinking about reasons on sensitivity to consequences, sensitivity to moral norms, and general action preferences. Three experiments (two preregistered) found that thinking about reasons (vs. responding intuitively or thinking about intuitions) reliably increased sensitivity to moral norms independent of processing time. Thinking about reasons had no reproducible effects on sensitivity to consequences and general action preferences. The results suggest that norm-conforming responses in moral dilemmas can arise from reflective thoughts about reasons, challenging the modal view on the role of cognitive reflection in moral-dilemma judgment. The findings highlight the importance of distinguishing between degree (high vs. low elaboration) and content (intuitions vs. reasons) as distinct aspects of cognitive reflection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyx L Ng
- The University of Texas at Austin, USA
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Interpersonal relationships modulate subjective ratings and electrophysiological responses of moral evaluations. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 23:125-141. [PMID: 36253608 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-022-01041-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
This study explored how interpersonal relationships modulate moral evaluations in moral dilemmas. Participants rated moral acceptability in response to altruistic (prescriptive) and selfish (proscriptive) behavior conducted by allocators (i.e., a friend or stranger), toward the participants themselves or another stranger in a modified Dictator Game (Experiments 1 and 2). Event-related potential (ERP) data were recorded as participants observed the allocators' behavior (Experiment 2). Moral acceptability ratings showed that when the allocator was a friend, participants evaluated the friend's altruistic and selfish behavior toward another stranger as being less morally acceptable than when their friend showed the respective behavior toward the participants themselves. The ERP results showed that participants exhibited more negative medial frontal negativity (MFN) amplitude whether observing a friend's altruistic or selfish behavior toward a stranger (vs. participant oneself), indicating that friends' altruistic and selfish behaviors toward strangers (vs. participants) were processed as being less acceptable at the earlier and semi-automatic processing stage in brains. However, this effect did not emerge when the allocator was a stranger in subjective ratings and MFN results. In the later-occurring P3 component, no interpersonal relationship modulation occurred in moral evaluations. These findings suggest that interpersonal relationships affect moral evaluations from the second-party perspective.
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Bostyn DH, Chandrashekar SP, Roets A. Deontologists are not always trusted over utilitarians: revisiting inferences of trustworthiness from moral judgments. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1665. [PMID: 36717679 PMCID: PMC9885386 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27943-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent research has looked at how people infer the moral character of others based on how they resolve sacrificial moral dilemmas. Previous studies provide consistent evidence for the prediction that those who endorse outcome-maximizing, utilitarian judgments are disfavored in social dilemmas and are seen as less trustworthy in comparison to those who support harm-rejecting deontological judgments. However, research investigating this topic has studied a limited set of sacrificial dilemmas and did not test to what extent these effects might be moderated by specific features of the situation described in the sacrificial dilemma (for instance, whether the dilemma involves mortal or non-mortal harm). In the current manuscript, we assessed the robustness of previous findings by exploring how trust inference of utilitarian and deontological decision makers is moderated by five different contextual factors (such as whether the sacrificial harm is accomplished by an action or inaction), as well as by participants' own moral preferences. While we find some evidence that trust perceptions of others are moderated by dilemma features, we find a much stronger effect of participants' own moral preference: deontologists favored other deontologists and utilitarians favored utilitarians. PROTOCOL REGISTRATION: The stage 1 protocol for this Registered Report was accepted in principle on 21 September 2022. The protocol, as accepted by the journal, can be found at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.21325953 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Dries H Bostyn
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Subramanya Prasad Chandrashekar
- Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Edvard Bulls veg 1, 7049, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Arne Roets
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
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Paruzel-Czachura M, Pypno K, Everett JAC, Białek M, Gawronski B. The Drunk Utilitarian Revisited: Does Alcohol Really Increase Utilitarianism in Moral Judgment? PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2023; 49:20-31. [PMID: 34657500 DOI: 10.1177/01461672211052120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The "drunk utilitarian" phenomenon suggests that people are more likely to accept harm for the greater good when they are under the influence of alcohol. This phenomenon conflicts with the ideas that (a) acceptance of pro-sacrificial harm requires inhibitory control of automatic emotional responses to the idea of causing harm and (b) alcohol impairs inhibitory control. This preregistered experiment aimed to provide deeper insights into the effects of alcohol on moral judgments by using a formal modeling approach to disentangle three factors in moral dilemma judgments and by distinguishing between instrumental harm and impartial beneficence as two distinct dimensions of utilitarian psychology. Despite the use of a substantially larger sample and higher doses of alcohol compared with the ones in prior studies, alcohol had no significant effect on moral judgments. The results pose a challenge to the idea that alcohol increases utilitarianism in moral judgments.
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11
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Luke DM, Gawronski B. Big Five Personality Traits and Moral-Dilemma Judgments: Two Preregistered Studies using the CNI Model. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2022.104297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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12
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Mo T, Sui J, Zhao Y, Zhou X. Moral positive illusion: self–other valuation difference in moral foundation theory. ETHICS & BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10508422.2022.2134134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jiarui Sui
- School of Management, Zhejiang University
| | - Yujie Zhao
- School of Management, Shandong University
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13
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Morally questionable actors' meta-perceptions are accurate but overly positive. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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14
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Schwartz F, Djeriouat H, Trémolière B. Agents' moral character shapes people's moral evaluations of accidental harm transgressions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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15
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Smith KM, Apicella CL. Hadza hunter-gatherers are not deontologists and do not prefer deontologists as social partners. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Zhang Z, Chen Z, Xu L. Artificial intelligence and moral dilemmas: Perception of ethical decision-making in AI. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Tsankova E, Tair E. Meta-Accuracy on the Internet: Initial Tests of Underlying Dimensions, Contributing Factors, and Biases. Front Psychol 2022; 13:837931. [PMID: 35310286 PMCID: PMC8926076 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.837931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Meta-accuracy (correspondence between how we think others perceive us and how they really perceive us) of first impressions on the Internet has the potential to shape subsequent interactions. Aiming to enhance understanding of the underlying perceptual dimensions, the contribution of social competence, and the existence of positive/negative bias in first impressions’ meta-accuracy online, we conducted a study in a simulated asynchronous social-media-type setting. Target participants uploaded a selfie, wrote a short description of themselves, provided estimates of how warm and competent they believed others would find them based on their selfies and texts (metaperception), and completed two social competence questionnaires (general and Internet-specific). Perceiver participants assessed the warmth and competence of the selfies and texts as well (others’ perception). Meta-accuracy was measured as the absolute difference between metaperception and others’ perception. Through correlational analyses, we confirmed that meta-accuracy of first impressions on the Internet aligned with the universal dimensions of social cognition (warmth and competence), found sporadic evidence for the positive association between meta-accuracy and social competence, and showed that meta-accuracy for specific Internet expressive means varied with varying proficiency in these means. Through t-tests, we demonstrated positive meta-accuracy bias for selfies along the warmth dimension and negative bias for text along the competence dimension. Overall, our results suggest the primacy of warmth and uniqueness of the male targets-female perceivers combination for meta-accuracy on the Internet. Our findings expand knowledge about first impressions’ meta-accuracy on the Internet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tsankova
- Personality Psychology and Methodology of Psychological Measurement, Department of Psychology, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ergyul Tair
- Personality Psychology and Methodology of Psychological Measurement, Department of Psychology, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
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18
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Insecure and insensitive: Avoidant and anxious attachment predict less concern for others in sacrificial moral dilemmas. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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19
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Many heads are more utilitarian than one. Cognition 2021; 220:104965. [PMID: 34872034 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Moral judgments have a very prominent social nature, and in everyday life, they are continually shaped by discussions with others. Psychological investigations of these judgments, however, have rarely addressed the impact of social interactions. To examine the role of social interaction on moral judgments within small groups, we had groups of 4 to 5 participants judge moral dilemmas first individually and privately, then collectively and interactively, and finally individually a second time. We employed both real-life and sacrificial moral dilemmas in which the character's action or inaction violated a moral principle to benefit the greatest number of people. Participants decided if these utilitarian decisions were morally acceptable or not. In Experiment 1, we found that collective judgments in face-to-face interactions were more utilitarian than the statistical aggregate of their members compared to both first and second individual judgments. This observation supported the hypothesis that deliberation and consensus within a group transiently reduce the emotional burden of norm violation. In Experiment 2, we tested this hypothesis more directly: measuring participants' state anxiety in addition to their moral judgments before, during, and after online interactions, we found again that collectives were more utilitarian than those of individuals and that state anxiety level was reduced during and after social interaction. The utilitarian boost in collective moral judgments is probably due to the reduction of stress in the social setting.
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Macko A. Contingencies of self-worth and the strength of deontological and utilitarian inclinations. The Journal of Social Psychology 2021; 161:664-682. [PMID: 33357143 DOI: 10.1080/00224545.2020.1860882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have tried to understand what makes people adopt deontological or utilitarian inclinations when forming moral judgments or making moral choices. The present research examined the impact of motivational factors: contingencies of people's self-worth on the strength of deontological and utilitarian inclinations. Study 1 found positive correlations between two contingencies of self-worth: basing one's self-worth on being a virtuous, moral person (Virtue) and outperforming others (Competition), and the strength of deontological inclinations and utilitarian inclinations respectively. Studies 2 and 3 found that increasing saliency of Virtue as a source of one's self-worth selectively increased the strength of deontological inclinations, leaving utilitarian inclinations unchanged, while the opposite was true for increasing saliency of Competition as a source of self-worth and the strength of utilitarian inclinations: such priming increased utilitarian inclinations while deontological inclinations remained unchanged.
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Tsankova E, Tair E. Meta-Accuracy of Very First Impressions: A Mini Review. Front Psychol 2021; 12:736534. [PMID: 34721207 PMCID: PMC8548461 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.736534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The meta-accuracy of first impressions (i.e., how accurately one understands others' perception of oneself) can be conceptualized and measured in various ways. In order to reduce conceptual and methodological overwhelm, facilitate understanding of the topic, and stimulate future work in the field, we conducted a brief introductory literature review on the meta-accuracy of first impressions. Following a definitions-and-methodology-focused overview of the historical development of the topic, we present comparative synthesis and analysis of the key conceptualization and measurement methods used to study the meta-accuracy of first impressions. We also summarize the central research themes and types of stimuli that have been studied in relation to the meta-accuracy of first impressions. Finally, we make several suggestions for further research that could be beneficial to the future development and expansion of the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tsankova
- Department of Psychology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ergyul Tair
- Department of Psychology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Sofia, Bulgaria
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22
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Reynolds CJ, Makhanova A, Nikonova L, Eckel LA, Conway P. Testosterone and cortisol do not predict rejecting harm or maximizing outcomes in sacrificial moral dilemmas: A preregistered analysis. Horm Behav 2021; 136:105063. [PMID: 34598057 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.105063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Contemporary moral psychology explores the biological underpinnings of morality, including how neuromodulators influence moral judgment and decision making. Some studies suggest that higher circulating testosterone is associated with increased acceptance of sacrificial harm, such as killing one person to save five lives, consistent with utilitarian ethics and inconsistent with deontological ethics. However, most studies employ conventional analytic techniques that conflate concern about outcomes with reduced concern about sacrificial harm, many are statistically underpowered, and none examine potential regulating effects of cortisol. Therefore, we examined whether salivary concentrations of testosterone and cortisol jointly predict sacrificial dilemma judgments among a large sample of undergraduates (n = 199). We utilized an advanced cognitive modeling technique (process dissociation) to independently assess sensitivity to causing harm and maximizing outcomes, preregistering the prediction that higher testosterone would predict reduced harm-rejection rather than increased concern for outcomes, especially among people low in cortisol. However, neither testosterone, nor cortisol, nor their interaction predicted sacrificial dilemma response tendencies. Such findings raise questions about the robustness of past evidence suggesting links between testosterone and sacrificial dilemma judgments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caleb J Reynolds
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; Department of Psychology, Wake Forest University, 1834 Wake Forest Rd., Winston-Salem, NC 27109, USA.
| | - Anastasia Makhanova
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; Department of Psychological Science, University of Arkansas, 216 Memorial Hall, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Larissa Nikonova
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Lisa A Eckel
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - Paul Conway
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, King Henry I Street, King Henry Building, PO1 2DY Portsmouth, United Kingdom
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Cameron CD, Conway P, Scheffer JA. Empathy regulation, prosociality, and moral judgment. Curr Opin Psychol 2021; 44:188-195. [PMID: 34695643 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this review, we examine relationships between empathy, prosocial behavior, and moral judgment. We focus on recent evidence for these relationships, with a focus on motivated empathy regulation as an important process that shapes empathic and moral outcomes. In particular, we highlight tradeoffs in contexts that involve competing victims with different needs, such as in large-scale suffering situations and sacrificial moral dilemmas, as well as on effects on punishment and recursive effects of morality on empathy. Our aim is to integrate motivation frameworks in empathy regulation and social cognition with prosocial and moral judgments.
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Luke DM, Gawronski B. Temporal Stability of Moral Dilemma Judgments: A Longitudinal Analysis Using the CNI Model. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2021; 48:1191-1203. [PMID: 34338077 DOI: 10.1177/01461672211035024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Although moral dilemma judgments are influenced by a variety of situational factors, there is evidence for considerable disagreement between individuals. Using the CNI model to disentangle (a) sensitivity to consequences, (b) sensitivity to moral norms, and (c) general preference for inaction versus action in responses to moral dilemmas, the current research examined the temporal stability of individual differences along the three dimensions. Across two time points 1 month apart, sensitivity to consequences (r = .81) and sensitivity to norms (r = .84) showed high levels of stability that were comparable to the Big Five personality traits; general preference for inaction versus action showed lower stability (r = .41). Exploratory analyses revealed reliable associations between the three dimensions of moral dilemma judgments and three of the Big Five (extraversion, agreeableness, openness). Together, these findings provide evidence for stable individual differences in moral dilemma judgments that are related to basic personality traits.
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Bostyn DH, Roets A, Conway P. Sensitivity to Moral Principles Predicts Both Deontological and Utilitarian Response Tendencies in Sacrificial Dilemmas. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/19485506211027031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
When facing sacrificial dilemmas in which harm maximizes outcomes, people appear sensitive to three moral principles: They are more averse to actively causing harm than passively allowing it ( action principle), causing harm directly than indirectly ( contact principle), and causing harm as a means than as a by-product of helping others ( intention principle). Across five studies and a meta-analysis ( N = 1,218), we examined whether individual differences in people’s sensitivity to these principles were related to participants’ moral preferences on sacrificial dilemmas. Interestingly, sensitivity to each of these principles was related to both elevated harm-rejection (i.e., deontological) as well as elevated outcome-maximization (i.e., utilitarian) response tendencies. Rather than increasing responses consistent with only one philosophical position, people sensitive to moral principles balanced moral concerns about causing harm and maximizing outcomes similar to people high in other measures of moral concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dries H. Bostyn
- Department of Developmental, Personality and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - A. Roets
- Department of Developmental, Personality and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - P. Conway
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
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Plaks JE, Robinson JS, Forbes R. Anger and Sadness as Moral Signals. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/19485506211025909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Three studies examined the relationship between emotions and moral judgment from an interpersonal perspective. In Studies 1 and 2, participants justified their decisions in sacrificial dilemmas to an imagined interlocutor. Linguistic analyses revealed that Don’t Sacrifice justifications contained more anger-related language than sadness-related language, whereas Sacrifice justifications contained roughly equal proportions of anger and sadness language. In Study 3, participants made character inferences about an actor who chose to/refused to sacrifice one person to save multiple people. We manipulated the actor’s ratio of anger to sadness. Participants rated the Don’t Sacrifice actor more negatively when they displayed high anger relative to sadness but rated the Sacrifice actor negatively whenever they exhibited high anger (independent of sadness). These data highlight novel ways in which actors and observers use emotions to complement the substance of a moral argument.
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Hou FI, Wu YL, Li MH, Huang WY. Physiotherapist' job performance, impression management and organizational citizenship behaviors: An analysis of hierarchical linear modeling. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251843. [PMID: 34019557 PMCID: PMC8139475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on physiotherapists are generally focused on clinical professionalism, with very few examining job performance from a management standpoint. To address this gap, this study sought to investigate the relationship between impression management and organizational citizenship behavior and job performance. This study targeted medical institutions offering rehabilitation and physiotherapy services and conducted a questionnaire survey based on scales developed by domestic and foreign scholars. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed and 523 valid ones collected. The data was tested and verified using regression analysis and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). In the survey, the Impression Management Scale, Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale, and Job Performance Scale indicated that at the individual level, the impression management of physiotherapists is significantly related to their organizational citizenship behaviors and job performance. The organizational citizenship behaviors were also found to have a mediating effect between impression management and job performance. At the group level, impression management had a conditioning effect on organizational citizenship behaviors and job performance. In terms of statistical methods, group-level variables act as moderators, which affects the power of individual-level explanatory variables on outcome variables, i.e., the influence of the slope. The job behaviors of physiotherapists entail direct service and their performance is closely related to organizational development. Impression management gives people certain purposes and behaviors while organizational citizenship behaviors are a type of non-self-seeking, selfless dedication behaviors. Therefore, the motivation of physiotherapists who demonstrate organizational citizenship behaviors should be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-I Hou
- Department of Information Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Lung Wu
- Department of Information Management, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Min-Hui Li
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Aerospace and Undersea Medicine, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Yun Huang
- Department of Information Engineering, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Institute of Allied Health Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Dhaliwal NA, Patil I, Cushman F. Reputational and cooperative benefits of third-party compensation. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2021.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Jin WY, Peng M. The Effects of Social Perception on Moral Judgment. Front Psychol 2021; 11:557216. [PMID: 33833702 PMCID: PMC8023274 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.557216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
When people express a moral judgment, others make inferences about their personality, such as whether they are warm or competent. People may use this interpersonal process to present themselves in a way that is socially acceptable in the current circumstances. Across four studies, we investigated this hypothesis in Chinese culture and showed that college student participants tended to associate others' deontological moral judgments with warmth and utilitarian moral judgments with competence (Study 1, M age = 21.1, SD = 2.45; Study 2, M age = 20.53, SD = 1.87). In addition, participants made more deontological judgments after preparing to be interviewed for a job requiring them to be in a warm social role, and more utilitarian judgments after preparing for a job requiring them to be in a competent social role (Study 3, M age = 19.5, SD = 1.63). This effect held true in moral dilemmas involving different degrees of hypothetical personal involvement, and appeared to be mediated by the perception of others' expectations (Study 4, M age = 19.92, SD = 1.97). The results suggest an important role for social cognition as an influence on moral judgments in Chinese culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ying Jin
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ming Peng
- School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
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de Melo CM, Marsella S, Gratch J. Risk of Injury in Moral Dilemmas With Autonomous Vehicles. Front Robot AI 2021; 7:572529. [PMID: 34212006 PMCID: PMC8239464 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2020.572529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As autonomous machines, such as automated vehicles (AVs) and robots, become pervasive in society, they will inevitably face moral dilemmas where they must make decisions that risk injuring humans. However, prior research has framed these dilemmas in starkly simple terms, i.e., framing decisions as life and death and neglecting the influence of risk of injury to the involved parties on the outcome. Here, we focus on this gap and present experimental work that systematically studies the effect of risk of injury on the decisions people make in these dilemmas. In four experiments, participants were asked to program their AVs to either save five pedestrians, which we refer to as the utilitarian choice, or save the driver, which we refer to as the nonutilitarian choice. The results indicate that most participants made the utilitarian choice but that this choice was moderated in important ways by perceived risk to the driver and risk to the pedestrians. As a second contribution, we demonstrate the value of formulating AV moral dilemmas in a game-theoretic framework that considers the possible influence of others’ behavior. In the fourth experiment, we show that participants were more (less) likely to make the utilitarian choice, the more utilitarian (nonutilitarian) other drivers behaved; furthermore, unlike the game-theoretic prediction that decision-makers inevitably converge to nonutilitarianism, we found significant evidence of utilitarianism. We discuss theoretical implications for our understanding of human decision-making in moral dilemmas and practical guidelines for the design of autonomous machines that solve these dilemmas while, at the same time, being likely to be adopted in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celso M de Melo
- CCDC US Army Research Laboratory, Playa Vista, CA, United States
| | - Stacy Marsella
- College of Computer and Information Science, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Jonathan Gratch
- Institute for Creative Technologies, University of Southern, Playa Vista, CA, United States
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31
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Emotion emphasis effects in moral judgment are moderated by mindsets. MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11031-020-09847-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIn two studies, emotion emphasis effects on moral judgment are demonstrated. The studies indicate that emphasizing negative consequences in trolley-type dilemmas with emotional language produces more utilitarian responses if such emphasis is on the consequences of the deontological option, and more deontological responses if it is on the consequences of the utilitarian option. This effect was moderated by action-phase related mindsets. Individuals in an implemental mindset were less susceptible to the emotion emphasis effect than individuals in a deliberative mindset (Studies 1, 2). By also using an eye-tracking task in Study 2, we demonstrated that our implemental mindset participants’ visual attention was more focused—in particular on goal-directed means—than that of the deliberative mindset participants.
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Ludwig J, Reisenzein R, Hiemisch A. Effects of Instrumentality and Personal Force on Deontological and Utilitarian Inclinations in Harm-Related Moral Dilemmas. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1222. [PMID: 32636781 PMCID: PMC7318801 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Moral dilemmas often concern actions that involve causing harm to others in the attempt to prevent greater harm. But not all actions of this kind are equal in terms of their moral evaluation. In particular, a harm-causing preventive action is typically regarded as less acceptable if the harm is a means to achieve the goal of preventing greater harm than if it is a foreseen but unintended side-effect of the action. Likewise, a harm-causing preventive action is typically deemed less acceptable if it directly produces the harm than if it merely initiates a process that brings about the harmful consequence by its own dynamics. We report three experiments that investigated to which degree these two variables, the instrumentality of the harm (harm as means vs. side-effect; Experiments 1, 2, and 3) and personal force (personal vs. impersonal dilemmas; Experiments 2 and 3) influence deontological (harm-rejection) and utilitarian (outcome-maximization) inclinations that have been hypothesized to underly moral judgments in harm-related moral dilemmas. To measure these moral inclinations, the process dissociation procedure was used. The results suggest that the instrumentality of the harm and personal force affect both inclinations, but in opposite ways. Personal dilemmas and dilemmas characterized by harm as a means evoked higher deontological tendencies and lower utilitarian tendencies, than impersonal dilemmas and dilemmas where the harm was a side-effect. These distinct influences of the two dilemma conceptualization variables went undetected if the conventional measure of moral inclinations, the proportion of harm-accepting judgments, was analyzed. Furthermore, although deontological and utilitarian inclinations were found to be largely independent overall, there was some evidence that their correlation depended on the experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Ludwig
- Institut für Psychologie, Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.,Fachbereich Staats- und Gesellschaftswissenschaften, Zeppelin Universität Friedrichshafen, Friedrichshafen, Germany.,Pädagogische Psychologie, Pädagogische Hochschule Weingarten, Weingarten, Germany
| | - Rainer Reisenzein
- Institut für Psychologie, Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anette Hiemisch
- Institut für Psychologie, Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Brady WJ, Crockett MJ, Van Bavel JJ. The MAD Model of Moral Contagion: The Role of Motivation, Attention, and Design in the Spread of Moralized Content Online. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020; 15:978-1010. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691620917336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
With more than 3 billion users, online social networks represent an important venue for moral and political discourse and have been used to organize political revolutions, influence elections, and raise awareness of social issues. These examples rely on a common process to be effective: the ability to engage users and spread moralized content through online networks. Here, we review evidence that expressions of moral emotion play an important role in the spread of moralized content (a phenomenon we call moral contagion). Next, we propose a psychological model called the motivation, attention, and design (MAD) model to explain moral contagion. The MAD model posits that people have group-identity-based motivations to share moral-emotional content, that such content is especially likely to capture our attention, and that the design of social-media platforms amplifies our natural motivational and cognitive tendencies to spread such content. We review each component of the model (as well as interactions between components) and raise several novel, testable hypotheses that can spark progress on the scientific investigation of civic engagement and activism, political polarization, propaganda and disinformation, and other moralized behaviors in the digital age.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jay J. Van Bavel
- Department of Psychology, New York University
- Center for Neural Science, New York University
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Abstract
Although many studies show cultural or ecological variability in moral judgments, cross-cultural responses to the trolley problem (kill one person to save five others) indicate that certain moral principles might be prevalent in human populations. We conducted a study in a traditional, indigenous, non-Western society inhabiting the remote Yalimo valley in Papua, Indonesia. We modified the original trolley dilemma to produce an ecologically valid "falling tree dilemma." Our experiment showed that the Yali are significantly less willing than Western people to sacrifice one person to save five others in this moral dilemma. The results indicate that utilitarian moral judgments to the trolley dilemma might be less widespread than previously supposed. On the contrary, they are likely to be mediated by sociocultural factors.
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Reynolds CJ, Knighten KR, Conway P. Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who is deontological? Completing moral dilemmas in front of mirrors increases deontological but not utilitarian response tendencies. Cognition 2019; 192:103993. [PMID: 31229738 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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36
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Bad luck or bad intentions: When do third parties reveal offenders' intentions to victims? JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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37
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Exogenous testosterone increases sensitivity to moral norms in moral dilemma judgements. Nat Hum Behav 2019; 3:856-866. [DOI: 10.1038/s41562-019-0641-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Not all who ponder count costs: Arithmetic reflection predicts utilitarian tendencies, but logical reflection predicts both deontological and utilitarian tendencies. Cognition 2019; 192:103995. [PMID: 31301587 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Conventional sacrificial moral dilemmas propose directly causing some harm to prevent greater harm. Theory suggests that accepting such actions (consistent with utilitarian philosophy) involves more reflective reasoning than rejecting such actions (consistent with deontological philosophy). However, past findings do not always replicate, confound different kinds of reflection, and employ conventional sacrificial dilemmas that treat utilitarian and deontological considerations as opposite. In two studies, we examined whether past findings would replicate when employing process dissociation to assess deontological and utilitarian inclinations independently. Findings suggested two categorically different impacts of reflection: measures of arithmetic reflection, such as the Cognitive Reflection Test, predicted only utilitarian, not deontological, response tendencies. However, measures of logical reflection, such as performance on logical syllogisms, positively predicted both utilitarian and deontological tendencies. These studies replicate some findings, clarify others, and reveal opportunity for additional nuance in dual process theorist's claims about the link between reflection and dilemma judgments.
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Capraro V, Everett JA, Earp BD. Priming intuition disfavors instrumental harm but not impartial beneficence. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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40
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Heck PR, Meyer MN. Information Avoidance in Genetic Health: Perceptions, Norms, and Preferences. SOCIAL COGNITION 2019. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2019.37.3.266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
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41
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Goldstein-Greenwood J, Conway P. Fatigue Compatibilism: Lay Perceivers Believe That Fatigue Predicts—But Does Not Excuse—Moral Failings. SOCIAL COGNITION 2019. [DOI: 10.1521/soco.2019.37.1.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Ellemers N, van der Toorn J, Paunov Y, van Leeuwen T. The Psychology of Morality: A Review and Analysis of Empirical Studies Published From 1940 Through 2017. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019; 23:332-366. [PMID: 30658545 PMCID: PMC6791030 DOI: 10.1177/1088868318811759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We review empirical research on (social) psychology of morality to identify which issues and relations are well documented by existing data and which areas of inquiry are in need of further empirical evidence. An electronic literature search yielded a total of 1,278 relevant research articles published from 1940 through 2017. These were subjected to expert content analysis and standardized bibliometric analysis to classify research questions and relate these to (trends in) empirical approaches that characterize research on morality. We categorize the research questions addressed in this literature into five different themes and consider how empirical approaches within each of these themes have addressed psychological antecedents and implications of moral behavior. We conclude that some key features of theoretical questions relating to human morality are not systematically captured in empirical research and are in need of further investigation.
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Reflecting on God's will: Reflective processing contributes to religious peoples' deontological dilemma responses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Bocian K, Baryla W, Kulesza WM, Schnall S, Wojciszke B. The mere liking effect: Attitudinal influences on attributions of moral character. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2018.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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45
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People making deontological judgments in the Trapdoor dilemma are perceived to be more prosocial in economic games than they actually are. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205066. [PMID: 30307977 PMCID: PMC6181327 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Why do people make deontological decisions, although they often lead to overall unfavorable outcomes? One account is receiving considerable attention: deontological judgments may signal commitment to prosociality and thus may increase people’s chances of being selected as social partners–which carries obvious long-term benefits. Here we test this framework by experimentally exploring whether people making deontological judgments are expected to be more prosocial than those making consequentialist judgments and whether they are actually so. In line with previous studies, we identified deontological choices using the Trapdoor dilemma. Using economic games, we take two measures of general prosociality towards strangers: trustworthiness and altruism. Our results procure converging evidence for a perception gap according to which Trapdoor-deontologists are believed to be more trustworthy and more altruistic towards strangers than Trapdoor-consequentialists, but actually they are not so. These results show that deontological judgments are not universal, reliable signals of prosociality.
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Bostyn DH, Sevenhant S, Roets A. Beyond physical harm: how preference for consequentialism and primary psychopathy relate to decisions on a monetary trolley dilemma. THINKING & REASONING 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2018.1497536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dries H. Bostyn
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sybren Sevenhant
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Arne Roets
- Department of Developmental, Personality, and Social Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Conway P, Goldstein-Greenwood J, Polacek D, Greene JD. Sacrificial utilitarian judgments do reflect concern for the greater good: Clarification via process dissociation and the judgments of philosophers. Cognition 2018; 179:241-265. [PMID: 30064654 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Researchers have used "sacrificial" trolley-type dilemmas (where harmful actions promote the greater good) to model competing influences on moral judgment: affective reactions to causing harm that motivate characteristically deontological judgments ("the ends don't justify the means") and deliberate cost-benefit reasoning that motivates characteristically utilitarian judgments ("better to save more lives"). Recently, Kahane, Everett, Earp, Farias, and Savulescu (2015) argued that sacrificial judgments reflect antisociality rather than "genuine utilitarianism," but this work employs a different definition of "utilitarian judgment." We introduce a five-level taxonomy of "utilitarian judgment" and clarify our longstanding usage, according to which judgments are "utilitarian" simply because they favor the greater good, regardless of judges' motivations or philosophical commitments. Moreover, we present seven studies revisiting Kahane and colleagues' empirical claims. Studies 1a-1b demonstrate that dilemma judgments indeed relate to utilitarian philosophy, as philosophers identifying as utilitarian/consequentialist were especially likely to endorse utilitarian sacrifices. Studies 2-6 replicate, clarify, and extend Kahane and colleagues' findings using process dissociation to independently assess deontological and utilitarian response tendencies in lay people. Using conventional analyses that treat deontological and utilitarian responses as diametric opposites, we replicate many of Kahane and colleagues' key findings. However, process dissociation reveals that antisociality predicts reduced deontological inclinations, not increased utilitarian inclinations. Critically, we provide evidence that lay people's sacrificial utilitarian judgments also reflect moral concerns about minimizing harm. This work clarifies the conceptual and empirical links between moral philosophy and moral psychology and indicates that sacrificial utilitarian judgments reflect genuine moral concern, in both philosophers and ordinary people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Conway
- Florida State University, Department of Psychology, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301, USA; Social Cognition Center Cologne, Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Richard-Strauss-Str. 2, Cologne 50931, Germany.
| | - Jacob Goldstein-Greenwood
- Florida State University, Department of Psychology, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301, USA.
| | - David Polacek
- Florida State University, Department of Psychology, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306-4301, USA.
| | - Joshua D Greene
- Harvard University, Department of Psychology, Center for Brain Science, 33 Kirkland St., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Armstrong J, Friesdorf R, Conway P. Clarifying Gender Differences in Moral Dilemma Judgments: The Complementary Roles of Harm Aversion and Action Aversion. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550618755873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Moral dilemmas entail situations where decisions consistent with deontological principles (following moral rules) conflict with decisions consistent with utilitarian principles (maximizing overall outcomes). Past work employing process dissociation (PD) clarified that gender differences in utilitarianism are modest, but women are substantially more deontological than men. However, deontological judgments confound two motivations: harm aversion and action aversion. The current work presents a mega-analysis of eight studies ( N = 1,965) using PD to assess utilitarian and deontological response tendencies both when deontology entails inaction and when it requires action, to assess the independent contributions of harm aversion and action aversion. Results replicate and clarify past findings: Women scored higher than men on deontological tendencies, and this difference was enhanced when the deontological choice required refraining from harmful action rather than acting to prevent harm. That is, gender differences in deontological inclinations are caused by both harm aversion and action aversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Armstrong
- The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Paul Conway
- Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
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