Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in milk and milk powder samples and their likely risk assessment in Iranian population

Acrylamide detection and reduction in meat products using organic acids, fruit extracts, and probiotics

Grilled foods are an important source of acrylamide, which has neurotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic properties. The current study aims to evaluate the level of acrylamide in beef, chicken, and fish products, especially those requiring high cooking temperatures, using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Reduction of acrylamide by organic acids i.e., (citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, and lactic acid) and fruit extracts of lemon, apple, and grape has also been investigated. The results revealed that the highest mean acrylamide concentration was found in chicken products (grilled chicken) which recorded 8.32 μg/100 g, followed by beef products (beef grilled) with a concentration of 7.91 μg/100 g, and fish products (pan-fried fish burgers) which recorded 6.77 μg/100 g). Furthermore, the mixture of organic acid has the highest effect on reducing the level of acrylamide in a chemical model system. Moreover, the fruit extract mixture was more effective in reducing the percentage of acrylamide in the grilled chicken than organic acids mixture. Finally, the addition of fruit extract improved the sensory properties of grilled chickens. In sum, this study offers novel and promising natural strategies to decrease acrylamide in meat products toward further future application in meat industry to deliver safe food to consumers.

Employing a magnetic chitosan/molybdenum disulfide nanocomposite for efficiently removing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from milk samples

This study aimed to develop a highly efficient nanocomposite composed of magnetic chitosan/molybdenum disulfide (CS/MoS2/Fe3O4) for the removal of three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-pyrene, anthracene, and phenanthrene. Novelty was introduced through the innovative synthesis procedure and the utilization of magnetic properties for enhanced adsorption capabilities. Additionally, the greenness of chitosan as a sorbent component was emphasized, highlighting its biodegradability and low environmental impact compared to traditional sorbents. Factors influencing PAH adsorption, such as nanocomposite dosage, initial PAH concentration, pH, and contact time, were systematically investigated and optimized. The results revealed that optimal removal efficiencies were attained at an initial PAH concentration of 150 mg/L, a sorbent dose of 0.045 g, pH 6.0, and a contact time of 150 min. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model exhibited superior fitting to the experimental data, indicating an equilibrium time of approximately 150 min. Moreover, the equilibrium adsorption process followed the Freundlich isotherm model, with kf and n values exceeding 7.91 mg/g and 1.20, respectively. Remarkably, the maximum absorption capacities for phenanthrene, anthracene, and pyrene on the sorbent were determined as 217 mg/g, 204 mg/g, and 222 mg/g, respectively. These findings underscore the significant potential of the CS/MoS2/Fe3O4 nanocomposite for efficiently removing PAHs from milk and other dairy products, thereby contributing to improved food safety and public health.

Review of the Terminology, Approaches, and Formulations Used in the Guidelines on Quantitative Risk Assessment of Chemical Hazards in Food

This paper reviews the published terminology, mathematical models, and the possible approaches used to characterise the risk of foodborne chemical hazards, particularly pesticides, metals, mycotoxins, acrylamide, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results confirmed the wide variability of the nomenclature used, e.g., 28 different ways of referencing exposure, 13 of cancer risk, or 9 of slope factor. On the other hand, a total of 16 equations were identified to formulate all the risk characterisation parameters of interest. Therefore, the present study proposes a terminology and formulation for some risk characterisation parameters based on the guidelines of international organisations and the literature review. The mathematical model used for non-genotoxic hazards is a ratio in all cases. However, the authors used the probability of cancer or different ratios, such as the margin of exposure (MOE) for genotoxic hazards. For each effect studied per hazard, the non-genotoxic effect was mostly studied in pesticides (79.73%), the genotoxic effect was mostly studied in PAHs (71.15%), and both effects were mainly studied in metals (59.4%). The authors of the works reviewed generally opted for a deterministic approach, although most of those who assessed the risk for mycotoxins or the ratio and risk for acrylamide used the probabilistic approach.

Occurrence, Concentration and Toxicity of 54 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Butter during Storage

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of highly carcinogenic compounds with a lipophilic nature. This study investigated the characterization of PAH24 contamination in twenty-one types of butter and five types of margarines using the QuEChERS pretreatment coupled with GC-QqQ-MS. Additionally, low-temperature storage experiments were conducted to explore the variations in oxidation index as well as the PAH levels. The results revealed that PAH24 concentrations in butter and margarine were 50.75-310.64 μg/kg and 47.66-118.62 μg/kg, respectively. The PAH4 level in one type of butter reached 11.24 μg/kg beyond the EU standards. Over 160 days of storage at 4 °C, acid value (AV), peroxide value (POV), and acidity significantly increased, while malondialdehyde (MDA) content and carbonyl value (CGV) fluctuated. Concentrations of PAH24 and oxidized PAHs (OPAHs) experienced a notable reduction of 29.09% and 63.85%, respectively. The slow reduction in naphthalene (NaP) indicated the dynamic nature of PAHs during storage. However, the toxic equivalency quotients (TEQs) decreased slightly from a range of 0.65-1.90 to 0.39-1.77, with no significant difference. This study contributes to the understanding of variations in PAHs during storage, which is of great significance for food safety.

Investigating the effect of type of fish and different cooking methods on the residual amount of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in some Iranian fish: A health risk assessment

The aim of this study was to assess the level of PAHs and associated health risks in different types of fish cooked with different methods, using the MSPE-GC/MS technique (magnetic solid phase extraction with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry). The limits of detection (LODs), limits of quantification (LOQs) and recovery percentages ranged from 0.1 to 0.63 μg/kg, 0.3-1.89 μg/kg, and 93.7 to 102.6%, respectively. The results showed that the mean of ƩPAHs in all samples was 20.31 ± 6.60 µg/kg. Additionally, PAH4 and BaP levels in all samples were 4.58 ± 1.40 and 1.08 ± 0.36 µg/kg, respectively, which were below the European Union (EU) standard level (12 and 2 µg/kg, respectively). The results showed that among 5 types of fish, starry sturgeon had highest average total PAHs (13.24 ± 1.84 µg/kg), while Caspian Sea sprat had the lowest average total PAHs (1.24 ± 0.8 µg/kg). In terms of cooking methods (charcoal-grilled fish, fried fish and oven-grilled fish), charcoal-grilled fish had the highest average total PAH level at 25.41 ± 7.31 µg/kg, while the lowest average total PAH was found in the raw fish sample at 16.44 ± 4.63 µg/kg. The Monte Carlo Simulation was used to determine the 95% ILCRs (Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk) due to ingestion of fish. The results showed that the ILCR for adults was 2.85E-9, while for children it was 1.32E-8. Therefore, based on these findings, it can be concluded that the consumption of fish cooked with different methods does not pose a risk to human health in terms of the amount of PAHs (ILCR < 1 × 10-4).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat, poultry, fish and related product samples of Iran: a risk assessment study

Meat, poultry, and seafood such as fish are a valuable source of protein, vitamins and minerals. Considering their high consumption in the human diet, it is necessary to study pollutants (such as PAHs) in them. This present study has focused on the PAHs level and probabilistic risk of health in meat, poultry, fish and related product samples by MSPE-GC/MS technique (magnetic solid-phase extraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). The maximum mean of 16 PAH was detected in smoked fish samples (222.7 ± 13.2 μg/kg) and the minimum mean of 16 PAH was detected in chicken (juje) kebab (112.9 ± 7.2 µg/kg μg/kg). The maximum mean of 4PAHs was detected in tuna fish (23.7 ± 2.4 µg/kg) and the minimum mean of 4PAHs was seen in grilled chicken and sausage samples (non-detected). Our results showed the 4PAHs and B[a]P were lower than the EU (European Union) standard levels (these standard levels were 30 and 5 μg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, the correlation among the type and concentrations of PAHs congeners was investigated through cluster analysis by heat map and principal component analysis. The 90th percentile ILCR (incremental lifetime cancer risk) of PAH compounds in fish, poultry, meat and related products samples was 3.39E-06, which was lower than the maximum acceptable level of risk (10-4). Finally, the highest ILCR was related to hamburger (4.45E-06). Therefore, there is no risk in consuming these foods in Iran, but it is necessary to monitor PAHs concentration in different types of foods.

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese herbal medicines by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with graphene-functionalized nickel foam

Graphene-functionalized nickel foam (NF) sorbent materials were prepared and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric analysis. For the separation and detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in five Chinese medicine samples, namely dandelion, fructus aurantii, peppermint, mulberry leaf and embryo chrysanthemum, a method combining dispersive micro-solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was developed. Four conditions affecting the extraction efficiency, such as the type of desorption solvent, the amount of sorbent, the extraction time and the volume of water sample, were optimized. The results of the methodological validation showed that NF@SiO₂@G was able to adsorb PAHs well and with good reproducibility. All analytes showed good linearity in the concentration range of 20-2000 ng/mL with coefficient of determination R²≥0.9956. The limit of detection was 0.98-13.34 ng/mL, and the limit of quantification ranged from 3.25 to 44.47 ng/mL. Both the intra-day and inter-day precision were lower than 15.46%, and the spiked recoveries were in the range of 75.5-118.4%. The total contents of the 16 PAHs contained in these five Chinese herbal medicines (CHMs) were varied from 450 to 1557 µg/kg. The results indicated that the graphene-functionalized NF sorbent combined with GC-MS can effectively detect PAHs in CHMs.

Levels and Health Risk Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Vegetable Oils and Frying Oils by Using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) and the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) Approach in China

A total of 139 vegetable oils and 48 frying oils produced in China were tested for the levels of 15 Environmental Protection Agency-regulated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The analysis was completed by high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The limit of detection and limit of quantitation were ranged between 0.2-0.3 and 0.6-1 μg/kg, respectively. The average recovery was 58.6-90.6%. The highest mean of total PAHs was found in peanut oil (3.31 μg/kg), while the lowest content was found in olive oil (0.39 μg/kg). In brief, 32.4% of vegetable oils exceeded the European Union maximum levels in China. The detected level of total PAHs in vegetable oils was lower than the frying oils. The mean dietary exposure to PAH15 ranged from 0.197 to 2.051 ng BaPeq/kg bw/day. The margin of exposure values was greater than 10,000, and the cumulative probabilities of the incremental lifetime cancer risk of different age groups were less than the priority risk level (10^-4). Therefore, there was no potential health concern for specific populations.

Determination of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) along with probabilistic health risk assessment in fruit juice samples in Tehran, Iran

In the present study, magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) method and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique were used to measure 6 PAE in fruit juice samples. The mean of total phthalic acid esters (ƩPAEs) in all samples was 3.55 ± 0.66 µg/L. The mean concentration of DEHP (bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate) in samples was 0.82 ± 0.31 µg/L, which was lower than the mentioned United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standard level in drinking water (6 μg/L for DEHP). The pineapple juice samples (4.44 ± 0.57 µg/L) and mango juice samples (2.77 ± 0. 1 µg/L) had maximum and minimum mean levels of ƩPAEs, respectively. Also, results showed that brand B (3.76 ± 0.87 µg/L) and samples in the time of expiration date (3.64 ± 0.72 µg/L) had the highest PAE levels. The rank order Chronic Daily Intake (95%) values for adults were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > butylbenzyl phthalates (BBP) ([Formula: see text]) > diethyl phthalate (DEP) ([Formula: see text]) and for children were DEHP ([Formula: see text]) > BBP (9.07E-04) > DEP ([Formula: see text]), which were below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) value. The noncancer risk of PAEs based on the target hazard quotient (THQ) was acceptable (< 1). The results exhibited that the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) was below the permissible limit (< [Formula: see text]). Therefore, the risk of carcinogenicity and noncarcinogenicity of PAEs in juices does not have adverse effects on human health.

The analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cereal products

The analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cereal products were done by using magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) method and gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC/MS). The results of method showed LOQ and LOD of PAHs compounds were 0.105-0.180 and 0.035-0.060 µg/kg, and the recorded values were 4.3-12.1 and 6.1-20.3% for repeatability and reproducibility with an estimated recovery of 94.4-103.4%. In this study, we analyzed kind of bread (Barbari, Sangak, Baguette, Taftoon, Lavash), macaroni, lasagna, and cooked rice that mean of total PAHs were 98.2, 121.7, 134.9, 166.3, 176.3, 176.2, 130.1, and 248.3 μg/kg, respectively. Further, the correlation between the type and amount of 16 PAHs with cereal products samples evaluated with multivariate principal component analysis and heat map visualization. The highest incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was found in cooked rice (7.80E-6), while the lowest ILCR was found in Lasagna (2.35E-07). In conclusion, the PAHs content in the tested products were in low health risk ranges (1 × 10^-6 < ILCR < 1 × 10^-4), and all of the cereal products sold in Tehran are considered safe for consumers. Therefore, cereal products should be regularly evaluated and monitored by regulatory agencies to reduce contaminants in these high-consumption products.

Probabilistic Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in Baby Food and Milk Powder Using ICP-OES Method

This study was conducted to evaluate the concentration and health risk of trace elements in milk powder and baby food samples marketed in Iran using inductive couple plasma/optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) method. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were ranged from 1.80 × 10^-5 to 2.17 × 10^-3 and 6.00 × 10^-5 to 7.22 × 10^-3 mg/kg, respectively, with recoveries ranged from 92 to 105%. Zinc (Zn) was found in a high mean concentration (8.49 × 10^-1 ± 3.93 × 10^-2 mg/kg) in milk powder, and iron (Fe) was found in the highest mean concentration (2.04 ± 3.61 × 10^-2 mg/kg) in baby food. The Monte Carlo simulation results for the infants revealed that the rank order of the hazard quotient (HQ) index was mercury (Hg) > nickel (Ni) > arsenic (As) > cadmium (Cd) > aluminum (Al). Further, the result of non-carcinogenic and probability of carcinogenic risk was lower than the limits of safe risk (HQ > 1 and cancer risk (CR) > 1 × 10^-4). In conclusion, the toxic elements content in the tested products was sufficiently low, and all of the milk powder and baby food sold in Iran could be considered safe for infants and children.

Trace-Level Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Dairy Products Available in Spanish Supermarkets by Semi-Automated Solid-Phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Detection

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been classified as priority pollutants by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Commission on the grounds of their carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic properties. Because of their ubiquity in industrial processes and the environment, PAHs can reach milk and dairy products and, eventually, humans. In this work, a new method was developed to detect and quantify sixteen of the EPA’s priority PAHs in commercial milk and dairy products. The method involves liquid−liquid extraction (LLE) followed by semi-automated solid-phase extraction (SPE) to clean up and preconcentrate the analytes prior their detection and quantification by gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (GC−MS). The proposed method provided high precision (relative standard deviation < 11.5%), recoveries of 80−107% and low detection limits (1−200 ng/kg). The method was applied to analyze 30 dairy products, the majority of which contained some PAH at concentrations from 7.1 to 1900 ng/kg. The most-detected analytes were the lighter PAHs (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, fluorene and phenanthrene). None of the samples, however, contained more than four PAHs.

Measurement of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Baby Food Samples in Tehran, Iran With Magnetic-Solid-Phase-Extraction and Gas-Chromatography/Mass-Spectrometry Method: A Health Risk Assessment

Baby food is one of the most sensitive foods available, which is closely monitored for carcinogens. In this study, 16 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds were evaluated by using the method of magnetic-solid-phase-extraction and gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (MSPE/GC-MS). The recovery, limit of detection (LOD), and limit of quantification (LOQ) of PAH compounds were 93.4–101.6%, 0.06–1.12, and 0.18–3.38 μg/kg, respectively. The results indicated the mean of total PAHs in all samples was 3.73 ± 0.8 μg/kg, and the mean of Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was 0.29 ± 0.14 μg/kg that were lower than the USA-Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standard level (1 μg/kg, BaP in baby foods). In addition, our results showed that mixed five cereal-based baby food had a maximum mean of ΣPAHs (5.06 ± 0.68 μg/kg) and mixed wheat and date-based baby food had a minimum mean of ΣPAHs (3.03 ± 0.41 μg/kg). The carcinogenic risk due to PAH in the tested baby foods sold in Iran was adequately low, and all examined products were safe for consumers. Therefore, it can be said that the consumption of baby foods does not pose a threat to consumers.

Concentrations, influencing factors, risk assessment methods, health hazards and analyses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in dairies: a review

The occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dairies has been widely reported. Consumers may be overly exposed to PAHs through dairies causing health risks. Hazards can be reduced by controlling influencing factors in the full-chain of dairy production. This review briefly introduces research trends and analytical methods concerning PAHs in dairies. Additionally, this review discusses influencing factors of PAH concentrations in various dairies to avoid PAHs' formation and accumulation during manufacture. Relevant regulations are referred to and the reported risk assessment methods are summarized. Furthermore, indicators of health risks including TEQBaP, the number and the rate of over-standard are calculated based on PAH concentrations. Through analyses, we find PAH and BaP contamination in dairies are complex problems depending on environment, processing and storage. There was a significant correlation between fat contents and PAH concentrations. Results of infant formula in certain research were worrying and those of smoked cheeses are remarkably high indicating the dangerous smoking process. It is significant to monitor PAHs and calculate TEQBaP from meadows to feeders. Moreover, the existing regulations are insufficient and need strengthening. The data and discussions in this review contribute to worldwide Big Data, further scientific investigation and regulations for PAHs in dairies.

Hydrolysis of triglycerides in milk to provide fatty acids as precursors in the formation of deep eutectic solvent for extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

A microextraction pretreatment for powdered milk analysis, relying on the formation of a natural deep eutectic solvent is proposed. It relies on the in situ hydrolysis of milk fats (triglycerides) which yields fatty acids as precursors in the formation of the natural deep eutectic solvent. As a proof-of-concept, the innovation was applied to the determination of thirteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in powdered milk samples by HPLC with fluorometric detection. The alkaline hydrolysis of milk triglycerides minimized sample matrices interference through removal of proteins and fats, and led to formation of natural deep eutectic solvent precursors (fatty acids) directly from the sample components. Addition of only one precursor (terpenoid) was then required. Menthol and thymol (natural terpenoids) were investigated as deep eutectic solvent precursors for microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Under the selected experimental conditions, limits of detection were estimated within the 0.002-0.09 μg kg^-1 range. The innovation provided satisfactory (70-91%) extraction of hydrophobic analytes from complex powdered milk matrices containing hydrophobic components (triglycerides) without the need for hazardous organic solvents. The RSD values were <5.2%.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Sample Preparation and Analysis in Beverages: A Review

The monitoring of food contaminants is of interests to both food regulatory bodies and the consumers. This literature review covers polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with regard to their background, sources of exposures, and occurrence in food and environment as well as health hazards. Furthermore, analytical methods focusing on the analysis of PAHs in tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples for the last 16 years are presented. Numerous experimental methods have been developed aiming to obtain better limits of detections (LODs) and percent recoveries as well as to reduce solvent consumption and laborious work. These include information such as the selected PAHs analyzed, food matrix of PAHs, methods of extraction, cleanup procedure, LOD, limits of quantitation (LOQ), and percent recovery. For the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples, a majority of the research papers focused on the 16 US Environmental Protection Agency PAHs, while PAH4, PAH8, and methylated PAHs were also of interests. Extraction methods range from the classic Soxhlet extraction and liquid–liquid extraction to newer methods such as QuEChERS, dispersive solid-phase microextraction, and magnetic solid-phase extraction. The cleanup methods involved mainly the use of column chromatography and SPE filled with either silica or Florisil adsorbents. Gas chromatography and liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry or fluorescence detectors are the main analytical instruments used. A majority of the selected combined methods used are able to achieve LODs and percent recoveries in the ranges of 0.01–5 ug/kg and 70–110%, respectively, for the analysis of tea, coffee, milk, and alcoholic samples.

Measurement of phthalate acid esters in non-alcoholic malt beverages by MSPE-GC/MS method in Tehran city: chemometrics

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs) are compounds that are used in the bottle as the main plasticizers. Therefore, the possibility of releasing phthalate esters into beverages is very high and there is a concern to consumer health and monitoring organizations. The aim of this research was to assess the phthalic acid esters (di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP), bis(di-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and total PAEs) in bottled non-alcoholic malt beverages (n = 120) by multi-walled carbon nanotubes were magnetized with iron (MWCNT-Fe₃O₄) using gaschromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that the highest and the lowest levels of total phthalate esters in samples were 9483.93 and 2412.50 ng/L, respectively. The mean of DEHP which has also been found to be carcinogenic in all samples was lower than 5944.73 ng/L. The highest concentration of DEHP in four samples was upper than 8957.87 ng/L. Perceived limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 13 to 30 ng/L and the limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 39 to 90 ng/L. Multivariate techniques and heat map visualization were used to assess the correlation among the type and levels of PAEs with the brand, color, product date, pH, sugar, volume, and gas pressure. Therefore, based on heat map and principal component analysis (PCA) results, the DEHP and total PAEs were the closest accessions, indicating that these variables had similar trends. Based on the results, it can be stated that due to the low average of total phthalate esters in non-alcoholic malt beverages, there is no serious health hazard of these compounds for humans.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in beverage and dairy products in South Korea: a risk characterization using the total diet study

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in 115 dairy products and beverages, including alcoholic, grain, carbonated, and functional drinks; fruit and vegetable juices; coffee; and tea, purchased from 10 local city markets in South Korea. The sample groups were divided into non-fatty and fatty groups, pretreated with the ultrasound-assisted extraction method and saponification method, respectively. The limit of detection, limit of quantification, and accuracy were 0.038-0.185 μg/kg, 0.114-0.560 μg/kg, and 87.64-112.25%, respectively. The measurement uncertainty was ≤ 6.38% for eight PAHs (PAH8). PAH8 was detected in 41 of the 115 samples, ranging from 0.041 to 7.793 µg/kg. The risk assessment revealed that the margin of exposure for PAH8 ranged from 3.60 × 104 to 7.84 × 1011 in the mean intake groups and from 3.60 × 104 to 5.33 × 1011 in the P97.5 intake groups.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-021-00927-7.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Foods: Biological Effects, Legislation, Occurrence, Analytical Methods, and Strategies to Reduce Their Formation

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemical compounds comprised of carbon and hydrogen molecules in a cyclic arrangement. PAHs are associated with risks to human health, especially carcinogenesis. One form of exposure to these compounds is through ingestion of contaminated food, which can occur during preparation and processing involving high temperatures (e.g., grilling, smoking, toasting, roasting, and frying) as well as through PAHs present in the soil, air, and water (i.e., environmental pollution). Differently from changes caused by microbiological characteristics and lipid oxidation, consumers cannot sensorially perceive PAH contamination in food products, thereby hindering their ability to reject these foods. Herein, the occurrence and biological effects of PAHs were comprehensively explored, as well as analytical methods to monitor their levels, legislations, and strategies to reduce their generation in food products. This review updates the current knowledge and addresses recent regulation changes concerning the widespread PAHs contamination in several types of food, often surpassing the concentration limits deemed acceptable by current legislations. Therefore, effective measures involving different food processing strategies are needed to prevent and reduce PAHs contamination, thereby decreasing human exposure and detrimental health effects. Furthermore, gaps in literature have been addressed to provide a basis for future studies.

The analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment of acrylamide level in commercial nuggets samples marketed in Iran: effect of two different cooking methods

The aim of current study was to evaluate the acrylamide level in chicken, meat and shrimp nugget samples cooked in both traditional and industrial methods using "Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe" QuEChERS extraction and gas chromatography-flame-ionization detection (GC-FID). Results revealed the traditional frying method has significant effect on the increase of acrylamide compared to industrial frying method and it was also found that the different cooking temperatures and time have significant effect on increase of acrylamide formation (p < 0.05), but type of edible oils had no significant effect. The highest acrylamide level found in shrimp nuggets (27 ± 1.5 ng/g) which fried by colza oil and traditional cooking method (6 min at 220 °C), while the lowest content of acrylamide found in chicken nuggets (7.3 ± 0.1 ng/g) which fried by corn oil and industrial method (3 min at 180 °C). Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) results indicated that the trend of potential non-carcinogenic risks on THQ for children was chicken nugget (3.51E-3) > meat nugget (1.36E-3) > shrimp nugget (1.43E-4) and for adults was chicken nugget (3.49E-4) > meat nugget (1.35E-4) > shrimp nugget (1.38E-5). The health risk of acrylamide for adults and children, was considerably lower than the safe risk limits (HQ >1 and CR > 1E-4) for Iranian population.

Validation and Use of an Accurate, Sensitive Method for Sample Preparation and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Determination of Different Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in Dairy Products

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances capable of altering the human hormone system and causing various diseases such as infertility and cancer as a result. In this work, a method for determining twenty-three different EDCs including parabens, alkylphenols, phenylphenols, organophosphorus pesticides, bisphenol A and triclosan in dairy products was developed. Samples are conditioned by addition of acetonitrile containing 1% formic acid, centrifugation and clean-up of the extract by continuous solid-phase extraction. EDCs in the extract are derivatised by heating in a microwave oven and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The proposed method features good limits of detection (6-40 ng/kg) and precision (relative standard deviation < 7.6%); also, it is scarcely subject to matrix effects (1-20%). EDC recoveries from spiked samples ranged from 80 to 108%. The method was used to analyse a total of 33 samples of dairy products including cow, sheep and goat milk, yoghourt, milkshakes, cheese, cream, butter and custard. Bisphenol A was the individual contaminant detected in the greatest number of samples, at concentrations from 180 to 4800 ng/kg. 2-Phenylphenol and ethylparaben were found in more than one-half, at concentrations over the range 130-3500 and 89-4300 ng/kg, respectively. In contrast, alkylphenols, organophosphorus pesticides and triclosan were detected in none.

[Research progress in the application of magnetic solid phase extraction based on carbon based magnetic materials in food analysis]

Trace toxic substances in food pose a serious threat to human health, and need to be detected and analyzed to ensure food safety. However, there are many kinds of toxic substances in food, with small amounts and complex matrices, making it necessary to select an appropriate sample pretreatment technology for extraction and purification. There are some disadvantages to sample pretreatment methods such as solid phase extraction and liquid-liquid extraction, in terms of poor selectivity, significant influence of matrix interference, large sample requirement, long extraction time, use of a large amount of harmful organic solvents, and cumbersome and time-consuming operation. Magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) combines the advantages of magnetic separation and traditional SPE technology, avoids time-consuming column loading, and can extract the target analyte efficiently. Because of its advantages, in that it has simple operation, is time-saving and fast, requires no centrifugal filtration, and is environmentally friendly, it is considered an efficient sample pretreatment technology and applied in food analysis. The adsorption capacity and selectivity of the magnetic adsorbent used in MSPE are the key factors affecting the extraction efficiency and selectivity of MSPE, and play a key role in the accuracy of the established method. Carbon-based magnetic materials are a type of new functional magnetic materials prepared by the co-precipitation of carbon-based materials (carbon nanotubes, graphene, metal-organic framework-derived carbon, or activated carbon) and magnetic materials. In order to endow carbon-based magnetic materials with the advantages of both, carbon materials and magnetic materials, while also reflecting the advantages of high specific surface area, good stability, low cost, environmental friendliness, excellent physical and chemical properties, high porosity, and high adsorption capacity, proper functional modification is needed. Carbon-based magnetic materials modified by functionalization can efficiently enrich organic and inorganic analytes with different properties, and have seen significant progress in environmental analysis, biological detection, pollution control, and other fields. In recent years, MSPE technology based on carbon-based magnetic materials has been gradually applied in food analysis and pretreatment, but its use is still in infancy and holds immense application potential. Reference to more than 50 papers published in SCI and Chinese core journals over the past four years reveals that carbon-based materials include carbon nanotubes modified by functional groups, reagents, or materials; graphene, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide; carbon derived from a gold organic framework; activated carbon biochar; and nanodiamond. The harmful substances in food samples include esters, mycotoxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, antibiotics, alkaloids, phenols, vitamins, and antibiotics. Based on the classification of carbon-based materials, this review reveals that carbon-based magnetic materials have good preconcentration ability for harmful substances in food samples. MSPE can be combined with GC-MS, liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS), ultra-fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS/MS), ultra high performance liquid chromatography-Q-Exactive high resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Exactive HRMS), high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD), gas chromatography micro-electron capture detection (GC-μECD), high performance liquid chromatography fluorescence with post-column photochemical derivatization (HPLC-PCD-FLD), and HPLC-UV to analyze food samples. These combined technologies have high accuracy and recovery. However, the synthesis methods of carbon-based magnetic materials such as carbon nanotubes and graphene, incur high energy consumption and high cost, and involve complex processes, which limit their application. Therefore, a carbon-based magnetic adsorbent with low cost, high selectivity, and high extraction efficiency was developed by further exploring functional modification with biochar as a carbon base. This is a very promising direction to develop MSPE technology utilizing biochar-based magnetic materials for food sample pretreatment. This review provides a theoretical basis and technical support for the wide application of carbon-based magnetic materials in MSPE technology for food analysis.

Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and probabilistic health risk assessment in yogurt and butter in Iran

This study was conducted to determine the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) levels and health risk of yogurt and butter samples collected from Tehran using MSPE/GC-MS (magnetic solid-phase extraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). The results revealed that the limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were ranged from 0.040 to 0.060 and 0.121 to 0.181 μg/kg, respectively; with recoveries ranged from 86.1% to 100.3%. The highest mean of total PAHs was higher in butter (6.87 ± 1.21 μg/kg) than in yogurt (3.82 ± 0.54 μg/kg). The level of benzo (a)pyrene in all samples was lower than of standard levels of the European Union (EU). The highest value of all PAHs in samples was recorded in the winter season and also in the expiration date. The percentile 95% of the total hazard quotient (THQ) due to the consumption of yogurt and butter recorded 1.33E-02 and 3.69E-04 in adults and 6.12E-02 and 1.75E-03 in children, respectively. The percentile of 95% incremental lifetime of cancer risk (ILCR) due to the ingestion of yogurt and butter recorded 1.17E-06 and 2.02E-08 for adults and 5.51E-06 and 9.46E-08 for children, respectively. The rank order of 7 PAHs in adult and children based on P95% Hazard Quotient (HQ) in all samples was benzo(a)anthracene (BaA) > pyrene (P) > fluorene (F) > fluoranthene (Fl) > acenaphthylene (Ace) > anthracene (A) > naphthalene (NA). According to the Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) method, health-risk assessment showed that children and adults are not at significant health risk.

Effects of nano-chitosan coatings incorporating with free /nano-encapsulated cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) essential oil on quality characteristics of sardine fillet

Nowadays, adding biological compounds to food packaging is one of the types of active packaging. The aim of this study was to prepare a new degradable coating with free and nano-encapsulated Cumino cyminum L. essential oil (CCEO) with nanochitosan (Nch) base to evaluate the microbial, chemical and sensory properties of sardine fillet samples for 16 days at 4 °C. Nanoliposome using different soy lecithin ratios and cholesterol concentrations (60:0, 50:10, 40:20, and 30:30) and technique of thin-film hydration-sonication, were prepared with a range of 140-164 nm size. Encapsulation efficiency (EE) and distribution of nanoliposomes size were calculated 0.80-0.90 and 49.85-73.01% respectively. To coat sardine fillet samples, nanoliposomes with the lower size of droplet and higher EE percent were selected. The outcomes indicated that coating treatments can effectively inhibit microbial growth and chemical spoilage reflected at lower pH, peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) (P < 0.05). In fact, the results of chemical and microbiological characteristics showed that the samples treated with nanocitosan/nano essential oil (NEO) showed the lowest value among other treatments during the experimental period, in the following, Nch-EO, Nch and control. pH, PV, TBARs, total viable counts (TVC), total pseudomonads count (TPC), and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were 6.85, 0.03 (mg MDA/kg), 5.23 (mEq/kg), 3.67 (CFU/g), 3.47 (CFU/g), and 4.7 (CFU/g), respectively for Nch-NEO at the end of storage time. In addition, during the experimental period, the highest sensory properties were obtained for the Nch-NEO group. Encapsulation of CCEO reduces the rate of diffusion, thus increasing antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, as well as improving sensory properties. According to the results of this study, CCEO-encapsulated nanochitosan coatings can be used as a potent coating to increase sardine shelf life.

Concentration and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in commercial tea and coffee samples marketed in Iran

The aim of the current study was to evaluate the probabilistic health risk and the concentration of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commercial tea and coffee samples. For determining the mentioned contaminants in sixty-four samples, a reliable and sensitive technique was validated and developed. The technique is established on magnetic solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (MSPE/GC-MS). The maximum mean of ƩPAHs in coffee samples was 13.75 ± 2.90 μg kg^-1, while the minimum mean ƩPAHs in tea samples was 4.77 ± 1.01 μg kg^-1. The mean concentration of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in samples ranged from 0.64 to 2.07 μg kg^-1 which was lower than that of standard levels (10 μg kg^-1) established by the European Union (EU). The Monte Carlo simulation results showed that the actual target hazard quotient (THQ) for the adult and children was equal to 1.63E-04 and 1.67E-04, respectively; hence, non-carcinogenic health risk for consumers is negligible. The result of actual incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was lower than the limits of safe risk (1E-4), indicating no notable possibility of cancer risk due to the digestion of tea and coffee for children and adults. Therefore, it can be concluded that the amount of contamination of popular commercial coffee and tea available in the Iranian market with PAHs is often similar to that found in other countries and was lower than the standard of EU. Thus, the processing conditions of these products must be controlled to prevent the formation of PAHs due to the suspicion of carcinogenicity and mutation.

Constant-wavelength synchronous fluorescence spectrometry for simultaneous and rapid determination of five polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon residues in dairy products

A new method for simultaneously determining five polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (fluorene, benzofluorene, pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, and perylene) in dairy products using constant-wavelength synchronous fluorescence spectrometry (CWSFS) was established in this study. Acetonitrile was chosen as the extraction solvent to extract the five PAHs from the dairy products, and an ultrasound extraction method was adopted. The supernatants were filtered using a 0.45-μm microporous filter membrane and concentrated to dryness with a nitrogen dryer. The extracts were then re-dissolved in cyclohexane for analysis. To overcome interference from the background matrix and between PAHs, the difference in wavelength (Δλ) at 40 nm was chosen for CWSFS scanning. With only one single scan, the five PAHs in dairy products could be distinguished and determined using the standard curve method without the need for previous chromatographic separation of the analyte solution. Detection limits of fluorene, benzofluorene, pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, and perylene were 0.0051 μg·L^-1 , 0.016 μg·L^-1 , 0.021 μg·L^-1 , 0.0056 μg·L^-1 , and 0.0062 μg·L^-1 , respectively. Recoveries were between 85.60% and 98.42%. These five PAHs in dairy products were determined with good results and therefore expected to be a routine detection method for PAHs in dairy products.

The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the processed meat samples collected from Iran's market: a probabilistic health risk assessment study

The concentration of PAHs among raw and cooked meat products (sausages and burgers), randomly collected from five regions of Tehran, Iran, was investigated by the aid of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and the risk assessment was conducted. The concentration of 16 types of PAHs in sausage and burger samples was found in the range of 8.08 to 29.55 and 10.18 to 29.85 μg/kg, respectively. The concentrations of some PAHs such as anthracene (A) (14.12 μg/kg) and acenaphthylene (Acl) (13.4 μg/kg) were higher than the European Standard (2 μg/kg). Among the meat products with different meat percentages (50, 70, and 90), the highest level of total PAHs was noted in the product containing 90% meat (19.34 μg/kg), while the highest mean level of PAHs was noted in fried meat products (23.31 μg/kg). A positive and significant correlation between cooking method and brand of product with the concentration of PAHs (p-value < 0.05) was noted. Also, no concern regarding the non-carcinogenic risk due to the ingestion of PAHs via consumption of the meat products was demonstrated by the health risk. However, the carcinogenic risk due to the consumption of sausage and burger was at the tolerable (1E-6 to 1E-4) and considerable (> 1E-4) risk levels, respectively. In this regard, further assessments to control and modify the cooking method among the Iranian population were recommended.