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Ma Y, Fu S, Cheng KW, Liu B. Impact of Extrusion Parameters on the Formation of Nε-(Carboxymethyl)lysine, Nε-(Carboxyethyl)lysine and Acrylamide in Plant-Based Meat Analogues. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8668. [PMID: 39201355 PMCID: PMC11354377 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25168668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2024] [Revised: 07/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
To investigate the impact of extrusion parameters on the formation of Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine (CML), Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CEL) and acrylamide in plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), the content changes and the correlations of compounds related to their formation were studied. The extrusion promoted CML, CEL and acrylamide formation, with more CEL being formed than CML. Variations in the moisture level and barrel temperature exerted a greater influence on the CML, CEL, acrylamide and α-dicarbonyl compounds than the screw speed and the feed rate. An increase in the moisture content led to a decrease in the CEL content, whereas it enhanced CML formation. The impact of moisture on acrylamide formation varied depending on whether low- or high-moisture extrusion was applied. Elevated temperatures promoted the accumulation of CEL, methylglyoxal and 2,3-butanedione while diminishing the accumulation of CML, acrylamide, glyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone. CML and CEL were positively correlated with glyoxal and methylglyoxal, respectively. CEL and methylglyoxal were negatively correlated with protein and water content, whereas CML, glyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone displayed positive correlations. In summary, higher moisture levels and feed rates and lower screw speeds and barrel temperatures are advantageous for producing PBMAs with lower CEL and total advanced glycation end-products contents, while lower or higher moisture contents, a lower feed rate and a higher barrel temperature are beneficial to reducing the acrylamide content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurong Ma
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (Y.M.); (S.F.); (K.-W.C.)
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
- Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Shuang Fu
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (Y.M.); (S.F.); (K.-W.C.)
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
- Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Ka-Wing Cheng
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (Y.M.); (S.F.); (K.-W.C.)
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
- Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Bin Liu
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; (Y.M.); (S.F.); (K.-W.C.)
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Health, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
- Institute for Innovative Development of Food Industry, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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2
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Sui X, Zhang T, Zhang X, Jiang L. High-Moisture Extrusion of Plant Proteins: Fundamentals of Texturization and Applications. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2024; 15:125-149. [PMID: 38359947 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-072023-034346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The growing demand for sustainable and healthy food alternatives has led to a significant increase in interest in plant-based protein products. Among the various techniques used in creating meat analogs, high-moisture extrusion (HME) stands out as a promising technology for developing plant-based protein products that possess desirable texture and mouthfeel. During the extrusion process, plant proteins undergo a state transition, causing their rheological properties to change, thereby influencing the quality of the final extrudates. This review aims to delve into the fundamental aspects of texturizing plant proteins using HME, with a specific focus on the rheological behavior exhibited by these proteins throughout the process. Additionally, the review explores the future of HME from the perspective of novel raw materials and technologies. In summary, the objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the potential of HME technology in the development of sustainable and nutritious plant-based protein products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaonan Sui
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; ,
| | - Tianyi Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; ,
| | - Xin Zhang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; ,
| | - Lianzhou Jiang
- College of Food Science, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China; ,
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3
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Dauer K, Kayser K, Ellwanger F, Overbeck A, Kwade A, Karbstein HP, Wagner KG. Highly protein-loaded melt extrudates produced by small-scale ram and twin-screw extrusion - evaluation of extrusion process design on protein stability by experimental and numerical approaches. Int J Pharm X 2023; 6:100196. [PMID: 37448986 PMCID: PMC10336796 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpx.2023.100196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding of generation, extent and location of thermomechanical stress in small-scale (< 3 g) ram and twin-screw melt-extrusion is crucial for mechanistic correlations to the stability of protein particles (lysozyme and BSA) in PEG-matrices. The aim of the study was to apply and correlate experimental and numerical approaches (1D and 3D) for the evaluation of extrusion process design on protein stability. The simulation of thermomechanical stress during extrusion raised the expectation of protein degradation and protein particle grinding during extrusion, especially when TSE was used. This was confirmed by experimental data on protein stability. Ram extrusion had the lowest impact on protein unfolding temperatures, whereas TSE showed significantly reduced unfolding temperatures, especially in combination with kneading elements containing screws. In TSE, the mechanical stress in the screws always exceeded the shear stress in the die, while mechanical stress within ram extrusion was generated in the die, only. As both extruder designs revealed homogeneously distributed protein particles over the cross section of the extrudates for all protein-loads (20-60%), the dispersive power of TSE revealed not to be decisive. Consequently, the ram extruder would be favored for the production of stable protein-loaded extrudates in small scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Dauer
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kevin Kayser
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Felix Ellwanger
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Achim Overbeck
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT) and Center of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Arno Kwade
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT) and Center of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Heike P. Karbstein
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Karl G. Wagner
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
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4
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Application of computational fluid dynamics simulations in food industry. Eur Food Res Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-023-04231-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
AbstractComputational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a tool for modelling and simulating processes in many industries. It is usually used as a choice to solve problem involving flow of fluids, heat transfer, mass transfer and chemical reaction. Moreover, it has also found application in the optimization of processes in branches of the food industry, including bread baking, cooling beef roast, or spray drying. CFD has enormous potential and many opportunities to improve the quality and safety of food products, as well as to reduce the costs of production and the use of machines and production equipment. In addition, empirical models only permit data to be extracted at a limited number of locations in the system (where sensors and gauges are placed). CFD allows the designer to examine any location in the region of interest, and interpret its performance through a set of thermal and flow parameters. Computer simulations are the future of every field of science, and the presented overview provides the latest information on experts and experiences related to CFD application in food production. Despite some disadvantages, such as the need to have a large reserve of computing power, the development of digital and IT technologies will make this problem insignificant in the nearest future. Then the CFD will become an indispensable element in the design of equipment and technological lines in the food industry.
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5
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Zhao Z, Wang Z, He Z, Zeng M, Chen J. Effects of Process Parameters on the Fibrous Structure and Textural Properties of Calcium Caseinate Extrudates. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:1292. [PMID: 36904531 PMCID: PMC10007486 DOI: 10.3390/polym15051292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Textured calcium caseinate extrudates are considered promising candidates in producing fish substitutes. This study aimed to evaluate how the moisture content, extrusion temperature, screw speed, and cooling die unit temperature of the high-moisture extrusion process affect the structural and textural properties of calcium caseinate extrudates. With an increase in moisture content from 60% to 70%, there was a decrease in the cutting strength, hardness, and chewiness of the extrudate. Meanwhile, the fibrous degree increased considerably from 1.02 to 1.64. The hardness, springiness, and chewiness showed a downward trend with the rise in extrusion temperature from 50 °C to 90 °C, which contributed to the reduction in air bubbles in the extrudate. Screw speed showed a minor effect on fibrous structure and textural properties. A low temperature (30 °C) in all cooling die units led to damaged structure without mechanical anisotropy, which resulted from fast solidification. These results show that the fibrous structure and textural properties of calcium caseinate extrudates can be effectively manipulated by adjusting the moisture content, extrusion temperature, and cooling die unit temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zhaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | | | | | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
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6
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Opaluwa C, Lott T, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Encapsulation of oil in the high moisture extrusion of wheat gluten: Interrelation between process parameters, matrix viscosity and oil droplet size. FUTURE FOODS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fufo.2023.100222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
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7
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Liu Q, Liu W, Bi C, Hu X, Zhang T, Zhang L, Hu H. Clarifying the effect of rheological parameters of starch fluid on tensile properties of final extrudate in twin‐screw extrusion by numerical simulation. J FOOD PROCESS ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.14221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qiannan Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
| | - Wei Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
| | - Chao Bi
- College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Beijing University of Chemical Technology Beijing China
| | - Xiaojia Hu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
| | - Tingting Zhang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
| | - Liang Zhang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
| | - Honghai Hu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS)/Key Laboratory of Agro‐Products Processing Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Beijing China
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8
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Andean Sprouted Pseudocereals to Produce Healthier Extrudates: Impact in Nutritional and Physicochemical Properties. Foods 2022. [PMCID: PMC9601839 DOI: 10.3390/foods11203259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The tailored formulation of raw materials and the combination of grain germination and extrusion processes could be a promising strategy to achieve the desired goal of developing healthier expanded extrudates without compromising sensory properties. In this study, modifications in the nutritional, bioactive profile and physicochemical properties of corn extrudates as influenced by the complete or partial replacement by sprouted quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) were investigated. A simplex centroid mixture design was used to study the effects of formulation on nutritional and physicochemical properties of extrudates, and a desirability function was applied to identify the optimal ingredient ratio in flour blends to achieve desired nutritional, texture and color goals. Partial incorporation of sprouted quinoa flour (SQF) and cañihua flour (SCF) in corn grits (CG)-based extrudates increased phytic acid (PA), total soluble phenolic compounds (TSPC), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and oxygen radical antioxidant activity (ORAC) of the extrudates. Sprouted grain flour usually results in an deleterious effect physicochemical properties of extrudates, but the partial mixture of CG with SQF and SCF circumvented the negative effect of germinated flours, improving technological properties, favoring the expansion index and bulk density and increasing water solubility. Two optimal formulations were identified: 0% CG, 14% SQF and 86% SCF (OPM1) and 24% CG, 17% SQF and 59% SCF (OPM2). The optimized extrudates showed a reduced amount of starch and remarkably higher content of total dietary fiber, protein, lipids, ash, PA, TSPC, GABA and ORAC as compared to those in 100% CG extrudates. During digestion, PA, TSPC, GABA and ORAC showed good stability in physiological conditions. Higher antioxidant activity and amounts of bioaccessible TSPC and GABA were found in OPM1 and OPM2 digestates as compared to those in 100% CG extrudates.
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9
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Zhang J, Chen Q, Kaplan DL, Wang Q. High-moisture extruded protein fiber formation toward plant-based meat substitutes applications: Science, technology, and prospect. Trends Food Sci Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2022.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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10
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Sun D, Wu M, Zhou C, Wang B. Transformation of high moisture extrusion on pea protein isolate in melting zone during: From the aspects of the rheological property, physicochemical attributes and modification mechanism. Food Hydrocoll 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Sun D, Zhou C, Yu H, Wang B, Li Y, Wu M. Integrated numerical simulation and quality attributes of soybean protein isolate extrusion under different screw speeds and combinations. INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.2022.103053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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12
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Principles and Guidelines for In-Line Viscometry in Cereal Extrusion. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14122316. [PMID: 35745891 PMCID: PMC9227049 DOI: 10.3390/polym14122316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the food industry, extrusion cooking finds numerous applications thanks to its high productivity and nutrient retention. More specifically, cereal extrusion, e.g., for savory snacks and breakfast products has an important market share. For such applications, rheology, which addresses viscous and elastic contributions, plays an important role in developing, optimizing, and controlling the extrusion manufacturing technique. In this context, conventional off-line rheometers are not ideal for providing data, as the goal is to replicate the exact thermomechanical history to which the food is subjected in the extrusion process. Hence, to achieve reliable analyses, in-line viscometers that have mostly been tested using oil-based polymers were introduced. Biopolymers (e.g., starch), however, are highly sensitive to both heat and mechanical degradation, and the viscometer design has to be adapted accordingly to produce an accurate measurement. Alongside a discussion of the different designs available, this review will address the most common methodologies for measuring the steady shear viscosity, extensional viscosity, and the first normal stress difference for food applications, providing researchers in the biopolymer and food engineering fields with a general introduction to this emerging topic.
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13
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Dong T, Wu J. Simulation of
non‐Newtonian
flows in a partially filled twin‐screw extruder by smoothed particle hydrodynamics. POLYM ENG SCI 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tianwen Dong
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Polymer Preparation and Processing Shangrao Normal University Shangrao China
| | - Jianchun Wu
- Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Polymer Preparation and Processing Shangrao Normal University Shangrao China
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14
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Dong Y, Wang B, Fang Y, Xu X, Yan S, Cui B, Abd El‐Aty AM. Effect of Different Rotational Speeds of the Extruder on the Structure of Corn Starch. STARCH-STARKE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/star.202100234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- School of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan Shandong 250353 China
| | - Bin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- School of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan Shandong 250353 China
- Department of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Agricultural University Taian 271018 China
| | - Youxin Fang
- Department of Forestry College Shandong Agricultural University Taian 271018 China
| | - Xin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- School of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan Shandong 250353 China
| | - Shouxin Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- School of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan Shandong 250353 China
| | - Bo Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- School of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan Shandong 250353 China
- Department of Food Science and Engineering Shandong Agricultural University Taian 271018 China
| | - A. M. Abd El‐Aty
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Material and Green Papermaking Shandong Academy of Sciences Qilu University of Technology Jinan 250353 China
- Department of Pharmacology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Cairo University Giza 12211 Egypt
- Department of Medical Pharmacology Medical Faculty Ataturk University Erzurum 25240 Turkey
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15
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Schmid V, Trabert A, Keller J, Bunzel M, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Defined shear and heat treatment of apple pomace: impact on dietary fiber structures and functional properties. Eur Food Res Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-021-03776-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
AbstractFood by-products can be modified by extrusion processing. However, the impact of thermal and mechanical stress, respectively, on the structure and thus functional properties of dietary fiber-rich food by-products is still unknown. In the extrusion process, thermal and mechanical stress are coupled, not constant, and difficult to measure or calculate. Thus, their influence on structural changes and functional properties cannot be evaluated separately. In this work, a specific shear cell, denoted by closed cavity rheometer, was used to treat apple pomace with defined thermal and/or mechanical stress. Dietary fiber composition and fiber polysaccharide structures appeared to be more susceptible to high temperatures than mechanical stress. With increasing temperature (and mechanical stress) soluble and low-molecular-weight soluble dietary fiber contents increased, whereas insoluble fiber contents decreased. Arabinans as rhamnogalacturonan type I polysaccharides and galacturonic acid containing pectic polysaccharides were identified as being most susceptible to degradation under these conditions. Furthermore, the defined treatment affected the functional properties. Although changes in the water solubility index (WSI) and/or the water absorption index (WAI) were not detected up to 90 °C, WSI and WAI decreased significantly at a treatment temperature of 120 °C. However, at very high temperatures (160 °C), WSI and WAI increased. The application of shear and longer treatment times resulted in higher WSI values and complex viscosities as compared to low shear stress.
Graphic abstract
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16
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Wittek P, Ellwanger F, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Morphology Development and Flow Characteristics during High Moisture Extrusion of a Plant-Based Meat Analogue. Foods 2021; 10:1753. [PMID: 34441530 PMCID: PMC8395023 DOI: 10.3390/foods10081753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 10/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-based meat analogues that mimic the characteristic structure and texture of meat are becoming increasingly popular. They can be produced by means of high moisture extrusion (HME), in which protein-rich raw materials are subjected to thermomechanical stresses in the extruder at high water content (>40%) and then forced through a cooling die. The cooling die, or generally the die section, is known to have a large influence on the products' anisotropic structures, which are determined by the morphology of the underlying multi-phase system. However, the morphology development in the process and its relationship with the flow characteristics are not yet well understood and, therefore, investigated in this work. The results show that the underlying multi-phase system is already present in the screw section of the extruder. The morphology development mainly takes place in the tapered transition zone and the non-cooled zone, while the cooled zone only has a minor influence. The cross-sectional contraction and the cooling generate elongational flows and tensile stresses in the die section, whereas the highest tensile stresses are generated in the transition zone and are assumed to be the main factor for structure formation. Cooling also has an influence on the velocity gradients and, therefore, the shear stresses; the highest shear stresses are generated towards the die exit. The results further show that morphology development in the die section is mainly governed by deformation and orientation, while the breakup of phases appears to play a minor role. The size of the dispersed phase, i.e., size of individual particles, is presumably determined in the screw section and then stays the same over the die length. Overall, this study reveals that morphology development and flow characteristics need to be understood and controlled for a successful product design in HME, which, in turn, could be achieved by a targeted design of the extruders die section.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (F.E.); (H.P.K.)
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17
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Wittek P, Walther G, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Comparison of the Rheological Properties of Plant Proteins from Various Sources for Extrusion Applications. Foods 2021; 10:1700. [PMID: 34441477 PMCID: PMC8391364 DOI: 10.3390/foods10081700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant proteins in foods are becoming increasingly popular with consumers. However, their application in extruded products remains a major challenge, as the various protein-rich raw materials (e.g., from different plant origins) exhibit very different material properties. In particular, the rheological properties of these raw materials have a distinct influence on the extrusion process and must be known in order to be able to control the process and adjust the product properties. In this study, process-relevant rheological properties of 11 plant-based protein-rich raw materials (differing in plant origin, protein content, and manufacturer) are determined and compared. The results demonstrate distinct differences in the rheological properties, even when plant origin and protein content are identical. Time sweeps reveal not only large differences in development of viscosity over time, but also in magnitude of viscosity (up to 15-fold difference). All materials exhibit gel behaviour and strain thinning behaviour in the strain sweeps, whereas their behaviour in the non-linear viscoelastic range differs greatly. Typical relaxation behaviour of viscoelastic materials could be observed in the stress relaxation tests for all materials. Comparison of the maximum achieved shear stress, which correlates with the elastic properties, reveals an up to 53-fold difference. The results of this study could serve as a starting point for adapting raw material selection and composition to process and product design requirements and help to meet the challenge of applying plant-based proteins in food extrusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Wittek
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (H.P.K.)
| | - Goeran Walther
- General Mills, R&D, James Ford Bell Technical Center, Golden Valley, MN 55427, USA;
| | - Heike P. Karbstein
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (H.P.K.)
| | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (H.P.K.)
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18
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Wittek P, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Blending Proteins in High Moisture Extrusion to Design Meat Analogues: Rheological Properties, Morphology Development and Product Properties. Foods 2021; 10:1509. [PMID: 34209076 PMCID: PMC8307526 DOI: 10.3390/foods10071509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
High moisture extrusion (HME) of meat analogues is often performed with raw materials containing multiple components, e.g., blends of different protein-rich raw materials. For instance, blends of soy protein isolate (SPI) and another component, such as wheat gluten, are used particularly frequently. The positive effect of blending on product texture is well known but not yet well understood. Therefore, this work targets investigating the influence of blending in HME at a mechanistic level. For this, SPI and a model protein, whey protein concentrate (WPC), were blended at three different ratios (100:0, 85:15, 70:30) and extruded at typical HME conditions (55% water content, 115/125/133 °C material temperature). Process conditions, rheological properties, morphology development, product structure and product texture were analysed. With increasing WPC percentage, the anisotropic structures became more pronounced and the anisotropy index (AI) higher. The achieved AI from the extrudates with a ratio of 70:30 (SPI:WPC) were considerably higher than comparable extrudates reported in other studies. In all extrudates, a multiphase system was visible whose morphology had changed due to the WPC addition. The WPC led to the formation of a much smaller dispersed phase compared to the overlying multiphase structure, the size of which depends on the thermomechanical stresses. These findings demonstrate that targeted mixing of protein-rich raw materials could be a promising method to tailor the texture of extruded meat analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (P.W.); (H.P.K.)
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Schmid V, Trabert A, Keller J(S, Bunzel M, Karbstein HP, Emin MA. Functionalization of Enzymatically Treated Apple Pomace from Juice Production by Extrusion Processing. Foods 2021; 10:foods10030485. [PMID: 33668342 PMCID: PMC7996331 DOI: 10.3390/foods10030485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Food by-products can be used as natural and sustainable food ingredients. However, a modification is needed to improve the technofunctional properties according to the specific needs of designated applications. A lab-scale twin-screw extruder was used to process enzymatically treated apple pomace from commercial fruit juice production. To vary the range of the thermomechanical treatment, various screw speeds (200, 600, 1000 min−1), and screw configurations were applied to the raw material. Detailed chemical and functional analyses were performed to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impact of the extrusion processing on apple pomace composition and technofunctional properties as well as structures of individual polymers. Extrusion at moderate thermomechanical conditions increased the water absorption, swelling, and viscosity of the material. An increase in thermomechanical stress resulted in a higher water solubility index, but negatively affected the water absorption index, viscosity, and swelling. Scanning electron microscopy showed an extrusion-processing-related disruption of the cell wall. Dietary fiber analysis revealed an increase of soluble dietary fiber from 12.6 to 17.2 g/100 g dry matter at maximum thermo-mechanical treatment. Dietary fiber polysaccharide analysis demonstrated compositional changes, mainly in the insoluble dietary fiber fraction. In short, pectin polysaccharides seem to be susceptible to thermo-mechanical stress, especially arabinans as neutral side chains of rhamnogalacturonan I.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Schmid
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (V.S.); (H.P.K.)
| | - Antje Trabert
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (A.T.); (J.K.); (M.B.)
| | - Judith (Schäfer) Keller
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (A.T.); (J.K.); (M.B.)
| | - Mirko Bunzel
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (A.T.); (J.K.); (M.B.)
| | - Heike P. Karbstein
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (V.S.); (H.P.K.)
| | - M. Azad Emin
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Chair of Food Process Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany; (V.S.); (H.P.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-721-608-48311
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