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Son RH, Kim MI, Kim HM, Guo S, Lee DH, Lim GM, Kim SM, Kim JY, Kim CY. Potential of Lycii Radicis Cortex as an Ameliorative Agent for Skeletal Muscle Atrophy. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:462. [PMID: 38675422 PMCID: PMC11054743 DOI: 10.3390/ph17040462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 03/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Lycii Radicis Cortex (LRC) is a traditional medicine in East Asia with various beneficial effects, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, and anti-depressant properties. However, its potential effects on skeletal muscle atrophy have not been studied. In this study, the protective effects of LRC extract (LRCE) on dexamethasone (DEX)-induced muscle atrophy were investigated in C2C12 myotubes and mice. We evaluated the effect of LRCE on improving muscle atrophy using a variety of methods, including immunofluorescence staining, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), Western blot, measurements of oxidative stress, apoptosis, ATP levels, and muscle tissue analysis. The results showed that LRCE improved myotube diameter, fusion index, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, mitochondrial content, ATP levels, expression of myogenin and myosin heavy chain (MHC), and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in dexamethasone-induced C2C12 myotubes. LRCE also enhanced protein synthesis and reduced protein degradation in the myotubes. In mice treated with DEX, LRCE restored calf thickness, decreased mRNA levels of muscle-specific RING finger protein 1 (MuRF1) and atrogin-1, and increased insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mRNA level. Moreover, LRCE also repaired gastrocnemius muscle atrophy caused by DEX. Although human studies are not available, various preclinical studies have identified potential protective effects of LRCE against muscle atrophy, suggesting that it could be utilized in the prevention and treatment of muscle atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rak Ho Son
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
- R&D Center, Huons Co., Ltd., 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea;
| | - Myeong Il Kim
- R&D Center, Huons Co., Ltd., 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hye Mi Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
| | - Shuo Guo
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
| | - Do Hyun Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
| | - Gyu Min Lim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
| | - Seong-Min Kim
- Medical Device Development Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation (DGMIF), 88 Dongnae-ro, Daegu 41061, Republic of Korea;
| | - Jae-Yong Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
- R&D Center, Huons Co., Ltd., 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea;
| | - Chul Young Kim
- College of Pharmacy and Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Ansan 15588, Republic of Korea; (R.H.S.); (H.M.K.); (S.G.); (D.H.L.); (G.M.L.)
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Ahmad SS, Chun HJ, Ahmad K, Choi I. Therapeutic applications of ginseng for skeletal muscle-related disorder management. J Ginseng Res 2024; 48:12-19. [PMID: 38223826 PMCID: PMC10785254 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2023.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle (SM) is the largest organ of the body and is largely responsible for the metabolism required to maintain body functions. Furthermore, the maintenance of SM is dependent on the activation of muscle satellite (stem) cells (MSCs) and the subsequent proliferation and fusion of differentiating myoblasts into mature myofibers (myogenesis). Natural compounds are being used as therapeutic options to promote SM regeneration during aging, muscle atrophy, sarcopenia, cachexia, or obesity. In particular, ginseng-derived compounds have been utilized in these contexts, though ginsenoside Rg1 is mostly used for SM mass management. These compounds primarily function by activating the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, upregulating myogenin and MyoD to induce muscle hypertrophy, downregulating atrophic factors (atrogin1, muscle ring-finger protein-1, myostatin, and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production), and suppressing the expressions of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in cachexia. Ginsenoside compounds are also used for obesity management, and their anti-obesity effects are attributed to peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) inhibition, AMPK activation, glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) translocation, and increased phosphorylations of insulin resistance (IR), insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), and Akt. This review was undertaken to provide an overview of the use of ginseng-related compounds for the management of SM-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Sayeed Ahmad
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Cell Culture, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jin Chun
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Khurshid Ahmad
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Cell Culture, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Inho Choi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Cell Culture, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea
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Ding K, Jiang W, Zhangwang J, Wang Y, Zhang J, Lei M. The potential of traditional herbal active ingredients in the treatment of sarcopenia animal models: focus on therapeutic effects and mechanisms. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2023; 396:3483-3501. [PMID: 37526688 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-023-02639-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Sarcopenia is a major global public health problem that harms individual physical function. In 2018, the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in the Elderly 2 classified sarcopenia into primary and secondary sarcopenia. However, information on the pathogenesis and effective treatment of primary and secondary sarcopenia is limited. Traditional herbal active ingredients have biological activities that promote skeletal muscle health, showing potential preventive and therapeutic effects on sarcopenia. Therefore, this narrative review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of global traditional herbal active ingredients' beneficial therapeutic effects and molecular mechanisms on sarcopenia-related animal models. For this purpose, we conducted a literature search in three databases, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase, consistent with the review objectives. After the screening, 12 animal studies met the review themes. The review results showed that the pathological mechanisms in sarcopenia-related animal models include imbalanced protein metabolism, oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, insulin resistance, endoplasmic reticulum stress, impaired mitochondrial biogenesis, and autophagy-lysosome system aggravation. Eleven traditional herbal active ingredients exerted positive anti-sarcopenic effects by ameliorating these pathological mechanisms. This narrative review will provide meaningful insight into future studies regarding traditional herbal active ingredients for treating sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixi Ding
- School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Wei Jiang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Juejue Zhangwang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Jiangsu Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, 210029, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China.
| | - Ming Lei
- Hospital of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China.
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Kim A, Park SM, Kim NS, Lee H. Ginsenoside Rc, an Active Component of Panax ginseng, Alleviates Oxidative Stress-Induced Muscle Atrophy via Improvement of Mitochondrial Biogenesis. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1576. [PMID: 37627571 PMCID: PMC10451796 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12081576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of skeletal muscle mass and function has detrimental effects on quality of life, morbidity, and mortality, and is particularly relevant in aging societies. The enhancement of mitochondrial function has shown promise in promoting muscle differentiation and function. Ginsenoside Rc (gRc), a major component of ginseng, has various pharmacological activities; however, its effect on muscle loss remains poorly explored. In this study, we examined the effects of gRc on the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced reduction of cell viability in C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes and H2O2-induced myotube degradation. In addition, we investigated the effects of gRc on the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial superoxide, ATP generation, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma co-activator 1α (PGC-1α) activity in myoblasts and myotubes under H2O2 treatment. Furthermore, to elucidate the mechanism of action of gRc, we conducted a transcriptome analysis of myotubes treated with or without gRc under H2O2 treatment. gRc effectively suppressed H2O2-induced cytotoxicity, intracellular ROS, and mitochondrial superoxide production, restored PGC-1α promoter activity, and increased ATP synthesis. Moreover, gRc significantly affected the expression levels of genes involved in maintaining mitochondrial mass and biogenesis, while downregulating genes associated with muscle degradation in C2C12 myotubes under oxidative stress. We provide compelling evidence supporting the potential of gRc as a promising treatment for muscle loss and weakness. Further investigations of the pharmacological effects of gRc under various pathological conditions of muscle loss will contribute to the clinical development of gRc as a therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aeyung Kim
- Korean Medicine (KM) Application Center, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daegu 41062, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Min Park
- College of Pharmacy, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea;
| | - No Soo Kim
- KM Convergence Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 34054, Republic of Korea;
| | - Haeseung Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute for Drug Development, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
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5
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Kim JY, Kim HM, Kim JH, Guo S, Lee DH, Lim GM, Kim W, Kim CY. Salvia plebeia R.Br. and Rosmarinic Acid Attenuate Dexamethasone-Induced Muscle Atrophy in C2C12 Myotubes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24031876. [PMID: 36768200 PMCID: PMC9915874 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24031876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle atrophy occurs when protein degradation exceeds protein synthesis and is associated with increased circulating glucocorticoid levels. Salvia plebeia R.Br. (SPR) has been used as herbal remedy for a variety of inflammatory diseases and has various biological actions such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there are no reports on the effects of SPR and its bioactive components on muscle atrophy. Herein, we investigated the anti-atrophic effect of SPR and rosmarinic acid (RosA), a major compound of SPR, on dexamethasone (DEX)-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in C2C12 myotubes. Myotubes were treated with 10 μM DEX in the presence or absence of SPR or RosA at different concentrations for 24 h and subjected to immunocytochemistry, western blot, and measurements of ROS and ATP levels. SPR and RosA increased viability and inhibited protein degradation in DEX-treated C2C12 myotubes. In addition, RosA promoted the Akt/p70S6K/mTOR pathway and reduced ROS production, and apoptosis. Furthermore, the treatment of RosA significantly recovered SOD activity, autophagy activity, mitochondrial contents, and APT levels in DEX-treated myotubes. These findings suggest that SPR and RosA may provide protective effects against DEX-induced muscle atrophy and have promising potential as a nutraceutical remedy for the treatment of muscle weakness and atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Wondong Kim
- Correspondence: (W.K.); (C.Y.K.); Tel.: +82-31-400-5817 (W.K.); +82-31-400-5809 (C.Y.K.); Fax: +82-31-400-5958 (C.Y.K.)
| | - Chul Young Kim
- Correspondence: (W.K.); (C.Y.K.); Tel.: +82-31-400-5817 (W.K.); +82-31-400-5809 (C.Y.K.); Fax: +82-31-400-5958 (C.Y.K.)
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6
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Potential Therapeutic Strategies for Skeletal Muscle Atrophy. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 12:antiox12010044. [PMID: 36670909 PMCID: PMC9854691 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The maintenance of muscle homeostasis is vital for life and health. Skeletal muscle atrophy not only seriously reduces people's quality of life and increases morbidity and mortality, but also causes a huge socioeconomic burden. To date, no effective treatment has been developed for skeletal muscle atrophy owing to an incomplete understanding of its molecular mechanisms. Exercise therapy is the most effective treatment for skeletal muscle atrophy. Unfortunately, it is not suitable for all patients, such as fractured patients and bedridden patients with nerve damage. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanism of skeletal muscle atrophy is crucial for developing new therapies for skeletal muscle atrophy. In this review, PubMed was systematically screened for articles that appeared in the past 5 years about potential therapeutic strategies for skeletal muscle atrophy. Herein, we summarize the roles of inflammation, oxidative stress, ubiquitin-proteasome system, autophagic-lysosomal pathway, caspases, and calpains in skeletal muscle atrophy and systematically expound the potential drug targets and therapeutic progress against skeletal muscle atrophy. This review focuses on current treatments and strategies for skeletal muscle atrophy, including drug treatment (active substances of traditional Chinese medicine, chemical drugs, antioxidants, enzyme and enzyme inhibitors, hormone drugs, etc.), gene therapy, stem cell and exosome therapy (muscle-derived stem cells, non-myogenic stem cells, and exosomes), cytokine therapy, physical therapy (electroacupuncture, electrical stimulation, optogenetic technology, heat therapy, and low-level laser therapy), nutrition support (protein, essential amino acids, creatine, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate, and vitamin D), and other therapies (biomaterial adjuvant therapy, intestinal microbial regulation, and oxygen supplementation). Considering many treatments have been developed for skeletal muscle atrophy, we propose a combination of proper treatments for individual needs, which may yield better treatment outcomes.
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Zha W, Sun Y, Gong W, Li L, Kim W, Li H. Ginseng and ginsenosides: Therapeutic potential for sarcopenia. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 156:113876. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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Hwang J, Kang S, Jung H. Effects of American wild ginseng and Korean cultivated wild ginseng pharmacopuncture extracts on the regulation of C2C12 myoblasts differentiation through AMPK and PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep 2022; 25:192. [PMID: 35419614 PMCID: PMC9051998 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2022.12708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Targeting impaired myogenesis and mitochondrial biogenesis offers a potential alternative strategy for balancing energy to fight muscle disorders such as sarcopenia. In traditional Korean medicine, it is believed that the herb wild ginseng can help restore energy to the elderly. The present study investigated whether American wild ginseng pharmacopuncture (AWGP) and Korean cultivated wild ginseng pharmacopuncture (KCWGP) regulate energy metabolism in skeletal muscle cells. C2C12 mouse myoblasts were differentiated into myotubes using horse serum for 5 days. An MTT colorimetric assay verified cell viability. AWGP, KCWGP (0.5, 1, or 2 mg/ml), or metformin (2.5 mM) for reference were used to treat the C2C12 myotubes. The expressions of differentiation and mitochondrial biogenetic factors were measured by western blotting in C2C12 myotubes. Treatment of C2C12 cells stimulated with AWGP and KCWGP at a concentration of 10 mg/ml did not affect cell viability. AWGP and KCWGP treatments resulted in significant increases in the myogenesis proteins, myosin heavy chain, myostatin, myoblast determination protein 1 and myogenin, as well as increases to the biogenic regulatory factors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1-α, nuclear respiratory factor 1, mitochondrial transcription factor A and Sirtuin 1, in the myotubes through AMPK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway activation. These results suggest that AWGP and KCWGP may be beneficial to muscle function by improving muscle differentiation and energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Hwang
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion Medicine, College of Korean Medicine, Gachon University, Seongnam, Gyeonggi 13120, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok Kang
- Korean Medicine R&D Center, Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang 38066, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Jung
- Department of Herbology, College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang 38066, Republic of Korea
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Kim R, Kim JW, Lee SJ, Bae GU. Ginsenoside Rg3 protects glucocorticoid‑induced muscle atrophy in vitro through improving mitochondrial biogenesis and myotube growth. Mol Med Rep 2022; 25:94. [PMID: 35059739 PMCID: PMC8809047 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2022.12610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), amplified by iterative heating processing with fresh ginseng, has a broad range of pharmacological activities and improves mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. However, thus far no study has examined how Rg3 affects myotube growth or muscle atrophy, to the best of the authors' knowledge. The present study was conducted to examine the myogenic effect of Rg3 on dexamethasone (DEX)‑induced myotube atrophy and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Rg3 activated Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling to prevent DEX‑induced myotube atrophy thereby stimulating the expression of muscle‑specific genes, including myosin heavy chain and myogenin, and suppressing muscle‑specific ubiquitin ligases as demonstrated by immunoblotting and immunostaining assays. Furthermore, Rg3 efficiently prevented DEX‑triggered mitochondrial dysfunction of myotubes through peroxisome proliferator‑activated receptor‑γ coactivator1α activities and its mitochondrial biogenetic transcription factors, nuclear respiratory factor‑1 and mitochondrial transcription factor A. These were confirmed by immunoblotting, luciferase assays, RT‑qPCR and mitochondrial analysis measuring the levels of ROS, ATP and membrane potential. By providing a mechanistic insight into the effect of Rg3 on myotube atrophy, the present study suggested that Rg3 has potential as a therapeutic or nutraceutical remedy to intervene in muscle aging or diseases including cancer cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuni Kim
- Drug Information Research Institute, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee Won Kim
- Drug Information Research Institute, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Jin Lee
- Research Institute of Aging Related Disease, AniMusCure Inc., Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- Drug Information Research Institute, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea
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Takemoto R, Sejima T, Han LK, Michihara S, Takahashi R. Disuse muscle atrophy-improving effect of ninjin'yoeito in a mouse model. Neuropeptides 2021; 90:102199. [PMID: 34610544 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2021.102199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Disuse syndrome indicates psychosomatic hypofunction caused by excess rest and motionless and muscle atrophy is termed disuse muscle atrophy. Disuse muscle atrophy-induced muscle weakness and hypoactivity further induces muscle atrophy, leading to a vicious cycle, and this is considered a factor causing secondary sarcopenia and subsequently frailty. Since frailty finally leads to a bedridden state requiring nursing, in facing a super-aging society, intervention for a risk factor of frailty, disuse muscle atrophy, is important. However, the main treatment of disuse muscle atrophy is physical therapy and there are fewer effective preventive and therapeutic drugs. The objective of this study was to search for Kampo medicine with a disuse muscle atrophy-improving effect. Ninjin'yoeito is classified as a qi-blood sohozai (dual supplement) in Chinese herbal medicine, and it has an action supplementing the spleen related to muscle. In addition, improvement of muscle mass and muscle weakness by ninjin'yoeito in a clinical study has been reported. In this study, the effect of ninjin'yoeito on disuse muscle atrophy was investigated. A disuse muscle atrophy model was prepared using male ICR mice. After surgery applying a ring for tail suspension, a 1-week recovery period was set. Ninjin'yoeito was administered by mixing it in the diet for 1 week after the recovery period, followed by tail suspension for 14 days. Ninjin'yoeito administration was continued until autopsy including the hindlimb suspension period. The mice were euthanized and autopsied immediately after completion of tail suspension, and the hindlimb muscles were collected. The food and water intakes during the hindlimb unloaded period, wet weight of the collected muscle, and muscle synthesis and muscle degradation-related factors in blood and muscle were evaluated. Ingestion of ninjin'yoeito inhibited tail suspension-induced reduction of the soleus muscle wet weight. In addition, an increase in the blood level of a muscle synthesis-related factor, IGF-1, and promotion of phosphorylation of mTOR and 4E-BP1 in the soleus muscle were observed. It was suggested that ninjin'yoeito has a disuse muscle atrophy-improving action. Promotion of the muscle synthesis pathway was considered the action mechanism of this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risa Takemoto
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma Ltd., 3-1 Kanebo machi, Takaoka, Toyama 933-0856, Japan.
| | - Takehiro Sejima
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma Ltd., 3-1 Kanebo machi, Takaoka, Toyama 933-0856, Japan
| | - Li-Kun Han
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma Ltd., 3-1 Kanebo machi, Takaoka, Toyama 933-0856, Japan
| | - Seiwa Michihara
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma Ltd., 3-1 Kanebo machi, Takaoka, Toyama 933-0856, Japan
| | - Ryuji Takahashi
- Kampo Research Laboratories, Kracie Pharma Ltd., 3-1 Kanebo machi, Takaoka, Toyama 933-0856, Japan
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Amelioration of muscle wasting by gintonin in cancer cachexia. Neoplasia 2021; 23:1307-1317. [PMID: 34798386 PMCID: PMC8605064 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2021.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer cachexia is characterized by systemic inflammation, protein degradation, and loss of skeletal muscle. Despite extensive efforts to develop therapeutics, only few effective treatments are available to protect against cancer cachexia. Here, we found that gintonin (GT), a ginseng-derived lysophosphatidic acid receptor (LPAR) ligand, protected C2C12 myotubes from tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα)/interferon γ (IFNγ)- induced muscle wasting condition. The activity of GT was found to be dependent on LPAR/Gαi2, as the LPAR antagonist Ki16425 and Gαi2 siRNA abolished the anti-atrophic effects of GT on myotubes. GT suppressed TNFα-induced oxidative stress by reducing reactive oxygen species and suppressing inflammation-related genes, such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX-2). In addition, GT exhibited anti-atrophy effects in primary normal human skeletal myoblasts. Further, GT protected against Lewis lung carcinoma cell line (LLC1)-induced cancer cachexia in a mouse model. Specifically, GT rescued the lower levels of grip strength, hanging, and cross-sectional area caused by LLC1. Collectively, our findings suggest that GT may be a good therapeutic candidate for protecting against cancer cachexia.
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Seok YM, Yoo JM, Nam Y, Kim J, Kim JS, Son JH, Kim HJ. Mountain ginseng inhibits skeletal muscle atrophy by decreasing muscle RING finger protein-1 and atrogin1 through forkhead box O3 in L6 myotubes. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 270:113557. [PMID: 33161026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Mountain ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is a medicinal herb with immune effects, muscle damage protection and energy metabolism effects. However, the pharmacological role of mountain ginseng in dexamethasone (DEXA)-induced muscle atrophy through the forkhead box O (FOXO) family is not understood. Therefore, we hypothesized that mountain ginseng inhibits skeletal muscle atrophy by decreasing muscle RING finger protein-1 (MuRF1) and atrogin1 through FOXO3 in L6 myotubes. METHODS Rat myoblast (L6) cells or Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to DEXA and mountain ginseng. The expressions of muscle atrophy targets such as MuRF1, atrogin1, MyHC (myosin heavy chain), HSP90, p-Akt, Akt, p-ERK1/2, ERK, FOXO3a, FOXO1, myostatin, and follistatin were analyzed by using Western blot analysis or real-time PCR. The diameter of myotubes was measured. Recruitment of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) or FOXO3a was analyzed by performing a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay. RESULTS Mountain ginseng treatment reduced muscle weight loss and collagen deposition in DEXA-induced rats. Mountain ginseng treatment led to decreases in MuRF1, atrogin1, p-ERK1/2, FOXO3a, FOXO1, and myostatin. Also, mountain ginseng treatment led to increases in the diameter of myotubes, MyHC, HSP90, p-Akt, and follistatin. Treatment with mountain ginseng reduced enrichment of GR, FOXO3a, and RNA polymerase II on the promoters. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that mountain ginseng inhibits skeletal muscle atrophy by decreasing MuRF1 and atrogin1 through FOXO3a in L6 myotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Mi Seok
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jae-Myung Yoo
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yoonju Nam
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jungeun Kim
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin Soo Kim
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jun-Ho Son
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyo Jung Kim
- Korean Medicine R&D Team 1, National Institute for Korean Medicine Development, Gyeongsan, 38540, Republic of Korea.
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Wang M, Jiang R, Liu J, Xu X, Sun G, Zhao D, Sun L. 20(s)‑ginseonside‑Rg3 modulation of AMPK/FoxO3 signaling to attenuate mitochondrial dysfunction in a dexamethasone‑injured C2C12 myotube‑based model of skeletal atrophy in vitro. Mol Med Rep 2021; 23:306. [PMID: 33649814 PMCID: PMC7974265 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2021.11945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle atrophy, a side effect from administration of the anti-inflammatory medication dexamethasone (DEX), is preventable by concomitant administration of the major monomeric constituent of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 (S-Rg3). Putative S-Rg3-associated prevention of DEX-induced muscle atrophy may involve S-Rg3 mitigation of DEX-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. In the present study, MTT assays revealed enhanced cell viability following S-Rg3 treatment of DEX-injured C2C12 myotubes. Subsequent PCR and western blotting results demonstrated S-Rg3-induced reduction of expression of muscle atrophy F-box protein (atrogin-1) and muscle RING-finger protein-1, proteins previously linked to muscle atrophy. Additionally, S-Rg3 treatment of DEX-injured myotubes led to aggregation of Rg3 monomers in cells and dose-dependent increases in cellular mitochondrial basal respiratory oxygen consumption rate and intracellular ATP levels compared with their levels in untreated DEX-injured myotubes. In addition, S-Rg3 treatment significantly reversed DEX-induced reductions of expression of key mitochondrial respiratory electron transport chain subunits of protein complexes II, III and V in DEX-injured myotube cells. Furthermore, S-Rg3 alleviation of mitochondrial dysfunction associated with DEX-induced injury of C2C12 myotubes was linked to S-Rg3-associated decreases in both forkhead box O3 (FoxO3) protein expression and phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Collectively, these results implicate S-Rg3 modulation of signaling within the AMPK-FoxO3 pathway as a putative mechanism underlying S-Rg3 alleviation of DEX-induced muscle atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manying Wang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Rui Jiang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Jianzeng Liu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Xiaohao Xu
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Guang Sun
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
| | - Liwei Sun
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin 130021, P.R. China
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Wang M, Ren J, Chen X, Liu J, Xu X, Li X, Zhao D, Sun L. 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 promotes myoblast differentiation and protects against myotube atrophy via regulation of the Akt/mTOR/FoxO3 pathway. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 180:114145. [PMID: 32653593 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We previously found that 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg3 (S-Rg3) promotes myoblast differentiation via an unknown mechanism. Here we measured levels of myosin heavy chain (MHC) and myogenin, markers of myoblast differentiation, using Western blot analysis and immunofluorescence staining. Notably, S-Rg3 treatment of C2C12 myoblasts led to increased muscle differentiation and protection from muscle atrophy in a dexamethasone (DEX)-treated C2C12 myotube-based muscle atrophy model. This effect was likely caused by S-Rg3 treatment-induced promotion of Akt/mTOR phosphorylation and inhibition of FoxO3 nuclear transcription. Additionally, S-Rg3 treatment also led to increased fruit fly climbing distances (Drosophila melanogaster) and prevented muscle atrophy in aged fruit flies. Our study provides a mechanistic framework for understanding how S-Rg3 enhances myoblast differentiation and inhibits myotube atrophy through activation of the Akt/mTOR/FoxO3 signaling pathway, as demonstrated in vitro in C2C12 cells and in vivo in fruit flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manying Wang
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1478 Gongnong Street, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China; Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Jixiang Ren
- Center of Preventive Treatment of Diseases, the Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1478 Gongnong Street, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Xuenan Chen
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1478 Gongnong Street, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China; Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Jianzeng Liu
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Xiaohao Xu
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1478 Gongnong Street, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Xiangyan Li
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China; Jilin Provincial Key Laboratory of BioMacromolecules of Chinese Medicine, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China
| | - Daqing Zhao
- Jilin Ginseng Academy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1035 Boshuo Road, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China; Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, PR China.
| | - Liwei Sun
- Research Center of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, 1478 Gongnong Street, Changchun, Jilin Province 130021, PR China; Key Laboratory of Active Substances and Biological Mechanisms of Ginseng Efficacy, Ministry of Education, PR China.
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Ginsenoside Rg1 Improves Differentiation by Inhibiting Senescence of Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell via GSK-3 β and β-Catenin. Stem Cells Int 2020; 2020:2365814. [PMID: 32565825 PMCID: PMC7271209 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2365814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To demonstrate the effect of Ginsenoside Rg1 on the differentiation of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs). Subsequently, a rational mechanism for the detection of Rg1 which affects mesenchymal stem cell differentiation was explored. Methods Flow cytometry is used for cell identification. The differentiation ability of hBM-MSCs was studied by differentiation culture. SA-β-gal staining is used to detect cell senescence levels. Western blot and immunofluorescence were used to determine protein expression levels. RT-qPCR is used to detect mRNA expression levels. Results Rg1 regulates the differentiation of hBM-MSCs. Differentiation culture analysis showed that Rg1 promoted cells to osteogenesis and chondrogenesis. Western blot results showed that Rg1 regulated the overactivation of the β-catenin signaling pathway and significantly adjusted the phosphorylation of GSK-3β. GSK-3β inhibitor (Licl) significantly increased Rg1-induced phosphorylation of GSK-3β, which in turn reduced Rg1-induced differentiation of hBM-MSCs. Conclusion Ginsenoside Rg1 can reduce the excessive activation of the Wnt pathway in senescent cells by inhibiting the phosphorylation of GSK-3β and regulate the mesenchymal stem cell differentiation ability.
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Lee SJ, Im M, Park SK, Kim JY, So EY, Liang OD, Kang JS, Bae GU. BST204, a Rg3 and Rh2 Enriched Ginseng Extract, Upregulates Myotube Formation and Mitochondrial Function in TNF-α-Induced Atrophic Myotubes. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2020; 48:631-650. [PMID: 32329640 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x20500329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The loss of skeletal muscle mass and function is a serious consequence of chronic diseases and aging. BST204 is a purified ginseng (the root of Panax ginseng) extract that has been processed using ginsenoside-β-glucosidase and acid hydrolysis to enrich ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2 from the crude ginseng. BST204 has a broad range of health benefits, but its effects and mechanism on muscle atrophy are currently unknown. In this study, we have examined the effects and underlying mechanisms of BST204 on myotube formation and myotube atrophy induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). BST204 promotes myogenic differentiation and multinucleated myotube formation through Akt activation. BST204 prevents myotube atrophy induced by TNF-α through the activation of Akt/mTOR signaling and down-regulation of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases, MuRF1, and Atrogin-1. Furthermore, BST204 treatment in atrophic myotubes suppresses mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and regulates mitochondrial transcription factors such as NRF1 and Tfam, through enhancing the activity and expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator1α (PGC1α). Collectively, our findings indicate that BST204 improves myotube formation and PGC1α-mediated mitochondrial function, suggesting that BST204 is a potential therapeutic or neutraceutical remedy to intervene muscle weakness and atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Jin Lee
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea
| | - Minju Im
- Green Cross Wellbeing Co., Ltd., Seongnam 13595, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Kyu Park
- Green Cross Wellbeing Co., Ltd., Seongnam 13595, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeom-Yong Kim
- Green Cross Wellbeing Co., Ltd., Seongnam 13595, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui-Young So
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Olin D Liang
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI 02903, USA
| | - Jong-Sun Kang
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea
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Shin EJ, Jo S, Choi S, Cho CW, Lim WC, Hong HD, Lim TG, Jang YJ, Jang M, Byun S, Rhee Y. Red Ginseng Improves Exercise Endurance by Promoting Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Myoblast Differentiation. Molecules 2020; 25:E865. [PMID: 32079067 PMCID: PMC7070955 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25040865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Red ginseng has been reported to elicit various therapeutic effects relevant to cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and inflammatory diseases. However, the effect of red ginseng on exercise endurance and skeletal muscle function remains unclear. Herein, we sought to investigate whether red ginseng could affect exercise endurance and examined its molecular mechanism. Mice were fed with red ginseng extract (RG) and undertook swimming exercises to determine the time to exhaustion. Animals fed with RG had significantly longer swimming endurance. RG treatment was also observed to enhance ATP production levels in myoblasts. RG increased mRNA expressions of mitochondrial biogenesis regulators, NRF-1, TFAM, and PGC-1α, which was accompanied by an elevation in mitochondrial DNA, suggesting an enhancement in mitochondrial energy-generating capacity. Importantly, RG treatment induced phosphorylation of p38 and AMPK and upregulated PGC1α expression in both myoblasts and in vivo muscle tissue. In addition, RG treatment also stimulated C2C12 myogenic differentiation. Our findings show that red ginseng improves exercise endurance, suggesting that it may have applications in supporting skeletal muscle function and exercise performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Ju Shin
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Seongin Jo
- Division of Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea; (S.J.); (S.C.)
| | - Sungbin Choi
- Division of Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea; (S.J.); (S.C.)
| | - Chang-Won Cho
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Won-Chul Lim
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Hee-Do Hong
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Tae-Gyu Lim
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
- Department of Food Science & Biotechnology, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea
| | - Young Jin Jang
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Mi Jang
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
| | - Sanguine Byun
- Division of Bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon 22012, Korea; (S.J.); (S.C.)
| | - Youngkyung Rhee
- Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do 55365, Korea; (E.J.S.); (C.-W.C.); (W.-C.L.); (H.-D.H.); (T.-G.L.); (Y.J.J.); (M.J.)
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18
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Shen S, Yu H, Gan L, Ye Y, Lin L. Natural constituents from food sources: potential therapeutic agents against muscle wasting. Food Funct 2019; 10:6967-6986. [PMID: 31599912 DOI: 10.1039/c9fo00912d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle wasting is highly correlated with not only reduced quality of life but also higher morbidity and mortality. Although an increasing number of patients are suffering from various kinds of muscle atrophy and weakness, there is still no effective therapy available, and skeletal muscle is considered as an under-medicated organ. Food provided not only essential macronutrients but also functional substances involved in the modulation of the physiological systems of our body. Natural constituents from commonly consumed dietary plants, either extracts or compounds, have attracted more and more attention to be developed as agents for preventing and treating muscle wasting due to their safety and effectiveness, as well as structural diversity. This review provides an overview of the mechanistic aspects of muscle wasting, and summarizes the extracts and compounds from food sources as potential therapeutic agents against muscle wasting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengnan Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
| | - Hua Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
| | - Lishe Gan
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yang Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, and Natural Products Chemistry Department, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Ligen Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China.
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Lee SJ, Bae JH, Lee H, Lee H, Park J, Kang JS, Bae GU. Ginsenoside Rg3 upregulates myotube formation and mitochondrial function, thereby protecting myotube atrophy induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 242:112054. [PMID: 31271820 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginsenoside Rg3 from Panax ginseng has reported to have multiple pharmacological activities including anti-diabetics, anti-inflammation and anti-cancer. However, the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on myogenic differentiation and muscle atrophy is unknown. AIM TO THE STUDY In this study, we investigated the myogenic effect and underlying molecular mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg3 on myotube atrophy induced by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). MATERIALS AND METHODS C2C12 myoblasts were induced to differentiate for one day followed by the treatment of TNF-α along with vehicle or ginsenoside Rg3 for additional 2 days and subjected to immunoblotting, immunocytochemistry, quantitative RT-PCR and biochemical analysis for mitochondrial function. RESULTS Ginsenoside Rg3 promotes myogenic differentiation and multinucleated myotube formation through Akt activation in a dose-dependent manner, without any cytotoxicity. Ginsenoside Rg3 treatment restores myotube formation and increases myotube diameters under TNF-α-treated conditions. Ginsenoside Rg3 enhances Akt/mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signaling that in turn stimulates muscle-specific gene expression such as myosin heavy chain (MHC) and Myogenin, and suppresses the expression of muscle-specific ubiquitin ligases. In addition, ginsenoside Rg3 in TNF-α-treated myotubes significantly inhibits the production of mitochondrial ROS and restores mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and ATP contents. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rg3 upregulates the activities and expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1α (PGC1α) and the mitochondrial biogenetic transcription factors, nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF1) and mitochondrial transcription factor A (Tfam) in TNF-α-induced myotube atrophy. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a mechanistic insight into the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on myogenic differentiation and myotube atrophy, suggesting that ginsenoside Rg3 has a promising potential as a therapeutic or neutraceutical remedy to intervene muscle weakness and atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Jin Lee
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, 04310, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ju Hyun Bae
- Molecular Cell Biology, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hani Lee
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, 04310, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyunji Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, Metabolic Syndrome and Cell Signaling Laboratory, Institute for Cancer Research, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 35015, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jongsun Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Metabolic Syndrome and Cell Signaling Laboratory, Institute for Cancer Research, College of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon, 35015, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jong-Sun Kang
- Molecular Cell Biology, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, 04310, Republic of Korea.
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Panax ginseng Total Protein Facilitates Recovery from Dexamethasone-Induced Muscle Atrophy through the Activation of Glucose Consumption in C2C12 Myotubes. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:3719643. [PMID: 31467885 PMCID: PMC6699344 DOI: 10.1155/2019/3719643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background The clinical anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone (DEX) can cause many side effects such as muscle atrophy for long-term use. Muscle atrophy induced by DEX may be caused by decrease of glucose consumption. Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer was previously considered to be an antiatrophic agent for glucocorticoid- (GC-) treated therapies. As one of the main components, it remains unclear whether ginseng total protein (GP) facilitates recovery from muscle atrophy induced by DEX. Methods In this study, GP was extracted and purified with Sephadex-G50. C2C12 myoblasts was induced with 2% horse serum to differentiate into C2C12 myotubes. Cell viability was analyzed by the MTT assay, and Ca2+ concentration was analyzed by a flow cytometer. The release of lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) and the glucose consumption were analyzed by spectrophotometry. The phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), and protein kinase B (Akt) and the expression of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) were analyzed by Western blotting. The phosphorylation of AS160 was quantified by Immunofluorescence staining. Results We found that GP increased cell viability and increased myotube diameter in high-dose DEX-treated C2C12 myotubes for 24 h, but this activity was not found in the enzymatic hydrolyzed GP group. GP reduced muscle atrophy by decreasing the expression of key proteins such as muscle RING-finger protein-1 and muscle atrophy F-box, reducing the Ca2+ concentration, and decreasing the release of LDH in DEX-injured C2C12 myotubes. Moreover, GP improved glucose consumption and increased the phosphorylation of AMPK, PI3K, Akt, and AS160 and the expression of GLUT4 in DEX-treated C2C12 myotubes. Conclusion The results of this study suggest that GP has effects on recovering DEX-induced muscle atrophy and cell injury, which may improve glucose consumption via the AMPK and PI3K/Akt pathways in high-dose DEX-treated C2C12 myotubes. This study provides in vitro mechanistic insights into the recovery of muscle atrophy with GP treatment.
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Wu J, Saovieng S, Cheng IS, Jensen J, Jean WH, Alkhatib A, Kao CL, Huang CY, Kuo CH. Satellite cells depletion in exercising human skeletal muscle is restored by ginseng component Rg1 supplementation. J Funct Foods 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2019.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
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22
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Ha TKQ, Pham HTT, Cho HM, Tran VO, Yang JL, Jung DW, Williams DR, Oh WK. 12,23-Dione dammarane triterpenes from Gynostemma longipes and their muscle cell proliferation activities via activation of the AMPK pathway. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1186. [PMID: 30718856 PMCID: PMC6361897 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37808-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The aging population is growing rapidly around the world and there is also an increase in sarcopenia, which is characterized by decreased muscle mass, strength and function in the elderly population. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an essential sensor and regulator of glucose, lipid and energy metabolism throughout the body. Previous studies have shown that AMPK pathway activation by regular exercise and appropriate dietary control have beneficial effects on skeletal muscle. In the process of searching for new AMPK activators from medicinal plants, we isolated and characterized eight new 12,23-dione dammarane triterpenoids (1-3 and 5-9), as well as one known gypentonoside A from Gynostemma longipes. When all isolates were tested for their AMPK activation activities, seven compounds (1 and 3-8) were significantly activated AMPK phosphorylation in mouse C2C12 skeletal muscle cell lines. Since G. longipes contained a significant amount of active compound 1 (over 2.08% per dried raw plant), it suggested the potential of this plant to be developed as a functional food or botanical drug that enhances muscle proliferation by activating AMPK signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Kim Quy Ha
- Korea Bioactive Natural Material Bank, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha Thanh Tung Pham
- Korea Bioactive Natural Material Bank, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Moon Cho
- Korea Bioactive Natural Material Bank, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Van On Tran
- Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Jun-Li Yang
- Key Laboratory of Chemistry of Northwestern Plant Resources of CAS and Key Laboratory for Natural Medicine of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, P. R. China
| | - Da-Woon Jung
- New Drug Targets Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 1 Oryong-Dong, Buk-Gu, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Darren R Williams
- New Drug Targets Laboratory, School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 1 Oryong-Dong, Buk-Gu, Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Keun Oh
- Korea Bioactive Natural Material Bank, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
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23
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Go GY, Jo A, Seo DW, Kim WY, Kim YK, So EY, Chen Q, Kang JS, Bae GU, Lee SJ. Ginsenoside Rb1 and Rb2 upregulate Akt/mTOR signaling-mediated muscular hypertrophy and myoblast differentiation. J Ginseng Res 2019; 44:435-441. [PMID: 32372865 PMCID: PMC7195574 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background As a process of aging, skeletal muscle mass and function gradually decrease. It is reported that ginsenoside Rb1 and Rb2 play a role as AMP-activated protein kinase activator, resulting in regulating glucose homeostasis, and Rb1 reduces oxidative stress in aged skeletal muscles through activating the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/Nrf2 pathway. We examined the effects of Rb1 and Rb2 on differentiation of the muscle stem cells and myotube formation. Methods C2C12 myoblasts treated with Rb1 and/or Rb2 were differentiated and induced to myotube formation, followed by immunoblotting for myogenic marker proteins, such as myosin heavy chain, MyoD, and myogenin, or immunostaining for myosin heavy chain or immunoprecipitation analysis for heterodimerization of MyoD/E-proteins. Results Rb1 and Rb2 enhanced myoblast differentiation through accelerating MyoD/E-protein heterodimerization and increased myotube hypertrophy, accompanied by activation of Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. In addition, Rb1 and Rb2 induced the MyoD-mediated transdifferentiation of the rhabdomyosarcoma cells into myoblasts. Furthermore, co-treatment with Rb1 and Rb2 had synergistically enhanced myoblast differentiation through Akt activation. Conclusion Rb1 and Rb2 upregulate myotube growth and myogenic differentiation through activating Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling and inducing myogenic conversion of fibroblasts. Thus, our first finding indicates that Rb1 and Rb2 have strong potential as a helpful remedy to prevent and treat muscle atrophy, such as age-related muscular dystrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ga-Yeon Go
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ayoung Jo
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Wan Seo
- College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, Cheonan, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Young Kim
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Kee Kim
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eui-Young So
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, USA
| | - Qian Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Alpert Medical School of Brown University/Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, USA
| | - Jong-Sun Kang
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
- Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Cheongpa-ro 47-gil 100, Yongsan-Gu, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea.
| | - Sang-Jin Lee
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Cheongpa-ro 47-gil 100, Yongsan-Gu, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea.
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24
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Yi SA, Lee J, Park SK, Kim JY, Park JW, Lee MG, Nam KH, Park JH, Oh H, Kim S, Han J, Kim BK, Jo DG, Han JW. Fermented ginseng extract, BST204, disturbs adipogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells through inhibition of S6 kinase 1 signaling. J Ginseng Res 2018; 44:58-66. [PMID: 32148390 PMCID: PMC7033330 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The biological and pharmacological effects of BST204, a fermented ginseng extract, have been reported in various disease conditions. However, its molecular action in metabolic disease remains poorly understood. In this study, we identified the antiadipogenic activity of BST204 resulting from its inhibition of the S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) signaling pathway. Methods The inhibitory effects of BST204 on S6K1 signaling were investigated by immunoblot, nuclear fractionation, immunoprecipitation analyses. The antiadipogenic effect of BST204 was evaluated by measuring mRNA levels of adipogenic genes and by chromatin immunoprecipitation and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis. Results Treatment with BST204 inhibited activation and nuclear translocation of S6K1, further decreasing the interaction between S6K1 and histone H2B in 10T1/2 mesenchymal stem cells. Subsequently, phosphorylation of H2B at serine 36 (H2BS36p) by S6K1 was reduced by BST204, inducing an increase in the mRNA expression of Wnt6, Wnt10a, and Wnt10b, which disturbed adipogenic differentiation and promoted myogenic and early osteogenic gene expression. Consistently, BST204 treatment during adipogenic commitment suppressed the expression of adipogenic marker genes and lipid drop formation. Conclusion Our results indicate that BST204 blocks adipogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells through the inhibition of S6K1-mediated histone phosphorylation. This study suggests the potential therapeutic strategy using BST204 to combat obesity and musculoskeletal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Ah Yi
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jieun Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun Kyu Park
- Research Institute, Green Cross WellBeing, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeom Yong Kim
- Research Institute, Green Cross WellBeing, Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong Woo Park
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Gyu Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki Hong Nam
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee Hun Park
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwamok Oh
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Saetbyul Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihoon Han
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Bo Kyung Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Gyu Jo
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeung-Whan Han
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
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25
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Jeong HJ, So HK, Jo A, Kim HB, Lee SJ, Bae GU, Kang JS. Ginsenoside Rg1 augments oxidative metabolism and anabolic response of skeletal muscle in mice. J Ginseng Res 2018; 43:475-481. [PMID: 31308819 PMCID: PMC6606823 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The ginsenoside Rg1 has been shown to exert various pharmacological activities with health benefits. Previously, we have reported that Rg1 promoted myogenic differentiation and myotube growth in C2C12 myoblasts. In this study, the in vivo effect of Rg1 on fiber-type composition and oxidative metabolism in skeletal muscle was examined. Methods To examine the effect of Rg1 on skeletal muscle, 3-month-old mice were treated with Rg1 for 5 weeks. To assess muscle strength, grip strength tests were performed, and the lower hind limb muscles were harvested, followed by various detailed analysis, such as histological staining, immunoblotting, immunostaining, and real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. In addition, to verify the in vivo data, primary myoblasts isolated from mice were treated with Rg1, and the Rg1 effect on myotube growth was examined by immunoblotting and immunostaining analysis. Results Rg1 treatment increased the expression of myosin heavy chain isoforms characteristic for both oxidative and glycolytic muscle fibers; increased myofiber sizes were accompanied by enhanced muscle strength. Rg1 treatment also enhanced oxidative muscle metabolism with elevated oxidative phosphorylation proteins. Furthermore, Rg1-treated muscles exhibited increased levels of anabolic S6 kinase signaling. Conclusion Rg1 improves muscle functionality via enhancing muscle gene expression and oxidative muscle metabolism in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon-Ju Jeong
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Medical Center, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Kyung So
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Medical Center, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ayoung Jo
- Research Center for Cell Fate Control, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye-Been Kim
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Medical Center, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Jin Lee
- Research Center for Cell Fate Control, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Gyu-Un Bae
- Research Center for Cell Fate Control, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Seoul, Korea
- Corresponding author. Research Center for Cell Fate Control, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women's University, Cheongpa-ro 47-gil 100, Yongsan-Gu, Seoul 04310, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jong-Sun Kang
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Medical Center, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
- Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Samsung Medical Center, Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon 440-746, Republic of Korea.
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