Medicinal potential of Panax ginseng and its ginsenosides in atopic dermatitis treatment

Construction and verification of atopic dermatitis diagnostic model based on pyroptosis related biological markers using machine learning methods

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to construct a model used for the accurate diagnosis of Atopic dermatitis (AD) using pyroptosis related biological markers (PRBMs) through the methods of machine learning.

METHOD

The pyroptosis related genes (PRGs) were acquired from molecular signatures database (MSigDB). The chip data of GSE120721, GSE6012, GSE32924, and GSE153007 were downloaded from gene expression omnibus (GEO) database. The data of GSE120721 and GSE6012 were combined as the training group, while the others were served as the testing groups. Subsequently, the expression of PRGs was extracted from the training group and differentially expressed analysis was conducted. CIBERSORT algorithm calculated the immune cells infiltration and differentially expressed analysis was conducted. Consistent cluster analysis divided AD patients into different modules according to the expression levels of PRGs. Then, weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) screened the key module. For the key module, we used Random forest (RF), support vector machines (SVM), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), and generalized linear model (GLM) to construct diagnostic models. For the five PRBMs with the highest model importance, we built a nomogram. Finally, the results of the model were validated using GSE32924, and GSE153007 datasets.

RESULTS

Nine PRGs were significant differences in normal humans and AD patients. Immune cells infiltration showed that the activated CD4+ memory T cells and Dendritic cells (DCs) were significantly higher in AD patients than normal humans, while the activated natural killer (NK) cells and the resting mast cells were significantly lower in AD patients than normal humans. Consistent cluster analysis divided the expressing matrix into 2 modules. Subsequently, WGCNA analysis showed that the turquoise module had a significant difference and high correlation coefficient. Then, the machine model was constructed and the results showed that the XGB model was the optimal model. The nomogram was constructed by using HDAC1, GPALPP1, LGALS3, SLC29A1, and RWDD3 five PRBMs. Finally, the datasets GSE32924 and GSE153007 verified the reliability of this result.

CONCLUSIONS

The XGB model based on five PRBMs can be used for the accurate diagnosis of AD patients.

Inhibition of the pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathway: The important potential mechanism of ginsenosides in ameliorating diabetes and its complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications have become an important global public health issue, affecting human health and negatively impacting life and lifespan. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death (PCD). To date, pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways have been identified primarily in the canonical and non-canonical inflammasome pathway, apoptotic caspase-mediated pathway, granzyme-mediated pathway, and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB)-mediated pathway. The activation of diabetes-mediated pyroptosis-associated factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of DM and its complications. Studies have shown that ginsenosides exert significant protective effects on DM and its complications. Through inhibiting the activation of pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways, and then the DM and its complications are improved. This review summarizes the subtypes of ginsenosides and their chemical characteristics, pharmacokinetics and side effects, the main pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways that have been discovered to date, and the potential mechanism of different subtypes of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications (such as diabetic cardiomyopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic liver injury, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic ischemic stroke) via anti-pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways. These findings may provide ideas for further research to explore ginsenoside mechanism in improving DM and its complications. However, many pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways and targets involved in the occurrence and development of DM and its complications are still unknown. In the future, further studies using in vitro cell models, in vivo animal models, and human disease models can be used to further elucidate the mechanism of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications.

Discrepancy Study of the Chemical Constituents of Panax Ginseng from Different Growth Environments with UPLC-MS-Based Metabolomics Strategy

Panax ginseng (P. ginseng), the dried root and rhizome of P. ginseng C. A. Meyer, is widely used in many fields as dietary supplements and medicine. To characterize the chemical constituents in P. ginseng cultivated in different growth environments, a UPLC-TOF-MS method was established for qualitative analysis. Four hundred and eight ginsenosides, including 81 new compounds, were characterized in P. ginseng from different regions. Among the detected compounds, 361 ginsenosides were recognized in P. ginseng cultivated in the region of Monsoon Climate of Medium Latitudes, possessing the largest amount of ginsenosides in all samples. Furthermore, 41 ginsenosides in 12 batches of P. ginsengs were quantified with a UPLC-MRM-MS method, and P. ginsengs from different regions were distinguished via chemometric analysis. This study showed that the different environments have a greater influence on P. ginseng, which laid a foundation for further quality control of the herb.

Characterization of Ginsenosides from the Root of Panax ginseng by Integrating Untargeted Metabolites Using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS

To compare the chemical distinctions of Panax ginseng Meyer in different growth environments and explore the effects of growth-environment factors on P. ginseng growth, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS/MS) was used to characterize the ginsenosides obtained by ultrasonic extraction from P. ginseng grown in different growing environments. Sixty-three ginsenosides were used as reference standards for accurate qualitative analysis. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the differences in main components and clarified the influence of growth environment factors on P. ginseng compounds. A total of 312 ginsenosides were identified in four types of P. ginseng, among which 75 were potential new ginsenosides. The number of ginsenosides in L15 was the highest, and the number of ginsenosides in the other three groups was similar, but it was a great difference in specie of ginsenosides. The study confirmed that different growing environments had a great influence on the constituents of P. ginseng, and provided a new breakthrough for the further study of the potential compounds in P. ginseng.

Network Pharmacology Integrated with Transcriptomics Analysis Reveals Ermiao Wan Alleviates Atopic Dermatitis via Suppressing MAPK and Activating the EGFR/AKT Signaling

Background

Ermiao Wan (EMW) is commonly used to treat atopic dermatitis (AD) in China. However, the pharmacological mechanisms underlying the action of EMW against AD remain unclear.

Purpose

We aimed to determine the mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of EMW in the treatment of AD.

Methods

We evaluated the effect of EMW on AD induced by dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) in BALB/C mice. To clarify the key components of EMW in AD treatment, the main components of EMW were identified using HPLC. Serum pharmacochemistry was used to analyze the absorbed ingredients from blood. Based on the phytochemical results, network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to predict the action of EMW. Skin transcriptomic analysis was used to validate the network pharmacology results. RT-qPCR,ELISA, and immunohistochemical were performed to validate the results of skin transcriptomics.

Results

EMW improved the symptoms of AD, with less rashes, less spontaneous scratching, less inflammatory cell infiltration, and fewer allergic reactions. The established HPLC method is simple and reliable. Chlorogenic acid, phellodendrine, magnoflorine, jatrorrhizine, palmatine, berberine, and atractylodin were the key effective ingredients with a high blood concentration. Fifty-seven primary causal targets of EMW against AD were identified. These targets are mainly involved in ErbB signaling pathways including EGFR, AKT1, MAPK8, JUN, MAPK1. Molecular docking showed that EGFR, AKT1, MAPK8, JUN, MAPK1 had good binding force with EMW. In AD mice, EMW regulated the EGFR/AKT signaling through upregulation of Grb2, GAB1, Raf-1, EGFR, and AKT, and downregulation of MAPK1 and JUN, compared to that in the MD group.

Conclusion

EMW could alleviate AD through activating EGFR/AKT signaling and suppressing MAPK. This study provides a theoretical basis for the clinical use of EMW.

Ginseng glycoprotein and ginsenoside facilitate anti UV damage effects in diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus combined with ultraviolet (UV) radiation damage not only brings great mental stress to patients, but also seriously impairs their quality of life. A UV-irradiated diabetic rat trauma skin model was established by us to investigate the effects and possible mechanisms of ginsenoside and glycoprotein on skin trauma repair in UV-irradiated diabetic rats. In the study, ginsenosides and ginseng glycoproteins were extracted from different parts of ginseng roots. It found that it's easier to prepare saponins in ginseng bark and proteins in ginseng core in large quantities. Since glycoprotein-like metabolites are relatively novel ginseng extracts, specifically characterized its structures. It was verified that the ginseng glycoproteins are not toxic to HaCaT cells and can significantly increase the survival of HaCaT cells after UV damage at the in vitro cellular level. Experiments in vivo were conducted to evaluate the therapeutic effects of ginsenoside and ginseng glycoprotein in a rat model of diabetes mellitus combined with UV irradiation injury. Histopathological changes on rat skin after treatment with ginsenoside and ginseng glycoprotein were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and aldehyde fuchsine staining. The expression levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), hydroxyproline (HYP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured. The results indicate that both ginsenoside and ginseng glycoprotein could improve skin damage and ulcers caused by diabetes combined with UV irradiation and could alleviate a range of skin damage caused by the combination of diabetes and UV irradiation, including peroxidation and collagen fiber loss. Ginsenoside and ginseng glycoproteins can be considered as natural product candidates for the development of new drugs to treat diabetes combined with UV irradiation-induced skin damage.

Recent Advances in Herbal-Derived Products with Skin Anti-Aging Properties and Cosmetic Applications

Although aesthetic benefits are a desirable effect of the treatment of skin aging, it is also important in controlling several skin diseases, mainly in aged people. The development of new dermocosmetics has rapidly increased due to consumers' demand for non-invasive products with lower adverse effects than those currently available on the market. Natural compounds of plant origin and herbal-derived formulations have been popularized due to their various safe active products, which act through different mechanisms of action on several signaling pathways for skin aging. Based on this, the aim of the review was to identify the recent advances in herbal-derived product research, including herbal formulations and isolated compounds with skin anti-aging properties. The studies evaluated the biological effects of herbal-derived products in in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo studies, highlighting the effects that were reported in clinical trials with available pharmacodynamics data that support their protective effects to treat, prevent, or control human skin aging. Thus, it was possible to identify that gallic and ferulic acids and herbal formulations containing Thymus vulgaris, Panax ginseng, Triticum aestivum, or Andrographis paniculata are the most promising natural products for the development of new dermocosmetics with skin anti-aging properties.

Fermented Angelicae tenussimae with Aspergillus oryzae Improves Skin Barrier Properties, Moisturizing, and Anti-Inflammatory Responses

Angelicae tenussimae root has been used as a traditional medicine in Asia. Recently, anti-melanogenic and anti-photogenic effects of fermented A. tenuissima root (FAT) were identified. However, information about the anti-atopic dermatitis action of FAT is limited. Thus, the purpose of this study is to determine the applicability of FAT to AD by identifying the efficacy of FAT on the skin barrier and inflammatory response, which are the main pathogenesis of AD. Expression levels of skin barrier components and the production of inflammatory mediators in human keratinocyte and mouse macrophage cells were measured by quantitative RT-PCR or ELISA. FAT upregulated the expression of skin barrier components (filaggrin, involucrin, loricurin, SPTLC1) and inhibited the secretion of an inflammatory chemokine TARC in HaCaT cells. Furthermore, it suppressed pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) and nitric oxide production in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. In addition, ligustilide increased filaggrin and SPTLC1, and also lowered pro-inflammatory mediators that increased in atopic environments, such as in FAT results. This means that ligustilide, one of the active ingredients derived from FAT, can ameliorate AD, at least in part, by promoting skin barrier formation and downregulating inflammatory mediators. These results suggest that FAT is a potential functional cosmetic material for the care and management of AD.

Ginsenoside Rh2 Ameliorates Neuropathic Pain by inhibition of the miRNA21-TLR8-MAPK axis

Ginsenoside Rh2 is one of the major bioactive ginsenosides in Panax ginseng. Although Rh2 is known to enhance immune cells activity for treatment of cancer, its anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects have yet to be determined. In this study, we investigated the effects of Rh2 on spared nerve injury (SNI)-induced neuropathic pain and elucidated the potential mechanisms. We found that various doses of Rh2 intrathecal injection dose-dependently attenuated SNI-induced mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Rh2 also inhibited microglia and astrocyte activation in the spinal cord of a murine SNI model. Rh2 treatment inhibited SNI-induced increase of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6. Expression of miRNA-21, an endogenous ligand of Toll like receptor (TLR)8 was also decreased. Rh2 treatment blocked the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway by inhibiting of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase expression. Finally, intrathecal injection of TLR8 agonist VTX-2337 reversed the analgesic effect of Rh2. These results indicated that Rh2 relieved SNI-induced neuropathic pain via inhibiting the miRNA-21-TLR8-MAPK signaling pathway, thus providing a potential application of Rh2 in pain therapy.

Phytoecdysteroids from Serratula coronata L. for Psoriatic Skincare

Phytoecdysones from Serratula coronata seem to be promising agents for skincare in patients with psoriasis. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of creams containing the extract of S. coronata on psoriatic lesions. Creams with different formulas were prepared: 0-Lekobaza^®, 1-Lekobaza^®, S. coronata, 2-Lekobaza^®, Salicylic acid, 3-Lekobaza^®, S. coronata, Salicylic acid. After examination of skin penetration and biosafety, the designated cream was applied twice daily for 6 weeks on 72 psoriatic plaques located on elbows or knees. The lesions were assessed at baseline and follow-up of 6 weeks. The lesions area was measured, and severity of scaling, erythema, and infiltration was assessed using a 5-point scale (from 0—none to 4—very severe). Skin hydration and structure, pH, transepidermal water loss, erythema, and melanin index were analyzed instrumentally. Creams 1, 2, and 3 significantly reduced the area of psoriatic plaques. Improvement in erythema and infiltration was observed for creams 1 and 3. Creams 1–3 reduced scaling. Our study confirmed a beneficial effect of creams containing S. coronata extract on psoriatic lesions.

In Vitro Anti-Photoaging and Skin Protective Effects of Licania macrocarpa Cuatrec Methanol Extract

The Licania genus has been used in the treatment of dysentery, diabetes, inflammation, and diarrhea in South America. Of these plants, the strong anti-inflammatory activity of Licania macrocarpa Cuatrec (Chrysobalanaceae) has been reported previously. However, the beneficial activities of this plant on skin health have remained unclear. This study explores the protective activity of a methanol extract (50-100 μg/mL) in the aerial parts of L. macrocarpa Cuatrec (Lm-ME) and its mechanism, in terms of its moisturizing/hydration factors, skin wrinkles, UV radiation-induced cell damage, and radical generation (using RT/real-time PCR, carbazole assays, flowcytometry, DPPH/ABTS, and immunoblotting analysis). The anti-pigmentation role of Lm-ME was also tested by measuring levels of melanin, melanogenesis-related genes, and pigmentation-regulatory proteins. Lm-ME decreased UVB-irradiated death in HaCaT cells by suppressing apoptosis and inhibited matrix metalloproteinases 1/2 (MMP1/2) expression by enhancing the activity of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38. It was confirmed that Lm-ME displayed strong antioxidative activity. Lm-ME upregulated the expression of hyaluronan synthases-2/3 (HAS-2/3) and transglutaminase-1 (TGM-1), as well as secreted levels of hyaluronic acid (HA) via p38 and JNK activation. This extract also significantly inhibited the production of hyaluronidase (Hyal)-1, -2, and -4. Lm-ME reduced the melanin expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, and tyrosinase-related protein-1/2 (TYRP-1/2) in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-treated B16F10 cells via the reduction of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and p38 activation. These results suggest that Lm-ME plays a role in skin protection through antioxidative, moisturizing, cytoprotective, and skin-lightening properties, and may become a new and promising cosmetic product beneficial for the skin.

Atopic dermatitis: molecular, cellular, and clinical aspects

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a complicated, inflammatory skin disease, which numerous genetic and environmental factors play roles in its development. AD is categorized into different phenotypes and stages, although they are mostly similar in their pathophysiological aspects. Immune response alterations and structural distortions of the skin-barrier layer are evident in AD patients. Genetic makeup, lifestyle, and environment are also significantly involved in contextual factors. Genes involved in AD-susceptibility, including filaggrin and natural moisturizing, cause considerable structural modifications in the skin's lipid bilayer and cornified envelope. Additionally, the skin's decreased integrity and altered structure are accompanied by biochemical changes in the normal skin microflora's dysbiosis. The dynamic immunological responses, genetic susceptibilities, and structural modifications associated with AD's pathophysiology will be extensively discussed in this review, each according to the latest achievements and findings.

Anti-Allergic Effects of Fermented Red Ginseng Marc on 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene-Induced Atopic Dermatitis-like Mice Model

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic and allergic skin disease; however, there is no cure for the disease. Red ginseng is well known to have anti-AD potential, while red ginseng marc (RGM) remaining after ginseng extraction is regarded as useless and discarded. However, it has recently been reported that RGM, particularly fermented RGM (fRGM), still contains bioactive properties. Thus, the anti-allergic effects of fRGM were examined in a 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene-induced AD-like mice model. The model was topically treated with distilled water (control), dexamethasone, or fRGM for six weeks. Treatments of fRGM alleviated skin lesions and reduced serum IgE levels, compared with the control. The fRGM also reduced skin levels of lipid peroxidation and superoxide anion; however, it increased glutathione contents, with downregulated gene expression for inflammatory mediators. Histopathological analyses demonstrated that fRGM suppressed epidermal thickening, collagen deposition, and inflammatory cell and mast cell infiltration, which involved anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic effects. Further, fRGM suppressed hypertrophic changes and inflammatory responses in the spleen and lymph nodes. The beneficial effects were observed in the dexamethasone and fRGM groups; however, the antioxidant effects were evident only in the fRGM treatments. These results provide useful information for developing fRGM as a therapeutic source for AD.

Anti-Inflammatory Functions of Methanol Extract from Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. Leaves and Shoots by Targeting the NF-κB Pathway

Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. is a widely used medical plant in Asia. Since the anti-inflammatory mechanism of this plant is not fully understood, the aim of this study was to explore the anti-inflammatory function and mechanism of Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. methanol extract (Mb-ME). For in vitro experiments, nitric oxide production assay, PCR, overexpression strategy, immunoblotting, luciferase reporter assay, and immunoprecipitation were employed to explore the molecular mechanism and the target proteins of Mb-ME. For in vivo experiments, an HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis mouse model was used to confirm the anti-inflammatory function. Mb-ME showed a strong ability to inhibit the production of nitric oxide and the expression of inflammatory genes. Mb-ME decreased NF-κB luciferase activity mediated by MyD88 and TRIF. Moreover, Mb-ME blocked the activation of Src, Syk, p85, Akt, p50, p60, IKKα/β, and IκBα in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Overexpression and immunoprecipitation analyses suggested Syk and Src as the target enzymes of Mb-ME. In vitro results showed that Mb-ME could alleviate gastritis and relieve the protein expression of p-Src, p-Syk, and COX-2, as well as the gene expression of COX-2 and TNF-α. In summary, this study implied that Mb-ME performs an anti-inflammatory role by suppressing Syk and Src in the NF-κB signaling pathway, both in vivo and in vitro.

Can Panax ginseng help control cytokine storm in COVID-19?

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is currently a pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 are directly associated with hyper-activation of innate immune response that excessively produce pro-inflammatory cytokines and induce cytokine storm, leading to multi-organ-failure and significant morbidity/mortality. Currently, several antiviral drugs such as Paxlovid (nirmatrelvir and ritonavir) and molnupiravir are authorized to treat mild to moderate COVID-19, however, there are still no drugs that can specifically fight against challenges of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Panax ginseng, a medicinal plant widely used for treating various conditions, might be appropriate for this need due to its anti-inflammatory/cytokine/viral activities, fewer side effects, and cost efficiency. To review Panax ginseng and its pharmacologically active-ingredients as potential phytopharmaceuticals for treating cytokine storm of COVID-19, articles that reporting its positive effects on the cytokine production were searched from academic databases. Experimental/clinical evidences for the effectiveness of Panax ginseng and its active-ingredients in preventing or mitigating cytokine storm, especially for the cascade of cytokine storm, suggest that they might be beneficial as an adjunct treatment for cytokine storm of COVID-19. This review may provide a new approach to discover specific medications using Panax ginseng to control cytokine storm of COVID-19.

Effect of herbal cream containing Fumaria officinalis and silymarin for treatment of eczema: A randomized double-blind controlled clinical trial

Objective

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a common skin disorder with symptoms including severe pruritus and eczematous lesions. AD affects between 5 and 20% of people in their life. Silymarin (SM) is a polyphenolic flavonoid from Silybum marianum L. and has several therapeutic characteristics including antiallergic, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. Fumaria officinalis is a small plant that has a high antioxidant power and modulating effects on the immune system. Therefore, the current study intended to examine the influence of these two herbs extract on severity and symptoms of AD in patients.

Materials and Methods

40 patients with mild to moderate eczema randomly received mometasone 0.1% or the herbal cream. Treatment course was 2 weeks and patients were examined before and after 2 weeks of treatment using the SCORAD system.

Results

The reduction of SCORAD score was significant in both groups (p=0.04 in the herbal group and p=0.03 in the mometasone group) but no significant difference was observed between the groups. Mean SCORAD score was 27.66±5.9 before therapy and 4.77±1.6 after therapy in the mometasone group and mean SCORAD score was 26.05±7.1 before therapy and 6.944±2.6 after therapy in the herbal group.

Conclusion

The current study indicated the impact of these two herbs extract on severity and symptoms of AD in patients; these plants may be a new treatment in reducing eczema symptoms and its problems.

Target-Specific Drug Discovery of Natural Products against SARS-CoV-2 Life Cycle and Cytokine Storm in COVID-19

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is currently a worldwide pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Currently, there are no drugs that can specifically combat SARS-CoV-2. Besides, multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants are circulating globally. These variants may lead to immune escape or drug resistance. Natural products may be appropriate for this need due to their cost efficiency, fewer side effects, and antiviral activities. Considering these circumstances, there is a need to develop or discover more compounds that have potential to target SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, we searched for articles on natural products describing anti-SARS-CoV-2 activities by targeting the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle and the cytokine storm in COVID-19 from academic databases. We reviewed anti-SARS-CoV-2 activities of natural products, especially those that target the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, transmembrane serine protease 2, cathepsin L, 3CL protease, PL protease, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and helicase) and cytokine storm in COVID-19. This review may provide a repurposed approach for the discovery of specific medications using natural products to treat COVID-19 through targeting the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle and the cytokine storm in COVID-19.

Ginsenoside Rg3 attenuates skin disorders via down-regulation of MDM2/HIF1α signaling pathway

Background

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) acts as a master switch for inflammatory responses. Ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) which is an active ingredient of Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae) is known to possess various therapeutic effects. However, a modulatory effect of Rg3 on TSLP expression in the inflammatory responses remains poorly understood.

Methods

We investigated antiinflammatory effects of Rg3 on an in vitro model using HMC-1 cells stimulated by PMA plus calcium ionophore (PMACI), as well as an in vivo model using PMA-induced mouse ear edema. TSLP and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or real-time PCR analysis. Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α) expression levels were detected using Western blot analysis.

Results

Rg3 treatment restrained the production and mRNA expression levels of TSLP and VEGF in activated HMC-1 cells. Rg3 down-regulated the MDM2 expression level increased by PMACI stimulation. The HIF1α expression level was also reduced by Rg3 in activated HMC-1 cells. In addition, Rg3-administered mice showed the decreased redness and ear thickness in PMA-irritated ear edema. Rg3 inhibited the TSLP and VEGF levels in the serum and ear tissue homogenate. Moreover, the MDM2 and HIF1α expression levels in the ear tissue homogenate were suppressed by Rg3.

Conclusion

Taken together, the current study identifies new mechanistic evidence about MDM2/HIF1α pathway in the antiinflammatory effect of Rg3, providing a new effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of skin inflammatory diseases.

Optimization of the extraction process of high levels of chlorogenic acid and ginsenosides from short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng and evaluation of the extract for the prevention of atopic dermatitis

Background

Short-term hydroponic-cultured ginseng (sHCG), which is 1-year-old ginseng seedlings cultivated for 4 weeks in a hydroponic system, is a functional food item with several biological effects. However, the optimal extraction conditions for sHCG, and the bioactivity of its extracts, have not been evaluated.

Methods

Chlorogenic acid (CGA) and ginsenoside contents were evaluated in sHCG, white ginseng (WG), and red ginseng (RG) using high-performance liquid chromatography. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction conditions (temperature and ethanol concentration) to maximize the yield of dry matter, CGA, and four ginsenosides (Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd) from sHCG. The optimal extraction conditions were applied to pilot-scale production of sHCG extracts. The expression levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α/interferon (IFN)-γ-induced thymic and activation-regulated chemokines (TARC/CCL17) were measured after treatment with sHCG, WG, and RG extracts, and the effects of their bioactive compounds (CGA and four ginsenosides) on human skin keratinocytes (HaCaTs) were evaluated.

Results

CGA and four ginsenosides, which are bioactive compounds of sHCG, significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 expression. The optimal sHCG extraction conditions predicted by the RSM models were 80 °C and 60% ethanol (v/v). The sHCG extracts produced at the pilot scale under optimal conditions greatly alleviated TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced TARC/CCL17 production compared with WG and RG extracts.

Conclusions

Pesticide-free sHCG extracts, which contain high levels of CGA and the ginsenosides Re, Rg₁, Rb₁, and Rd as bioactive compounds, may have therapeutic potential for atopic diseases.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of a Medicinal Herb Extract Mixture, HM-V, on an Animal Model of DNCB-Induced Chronic Skin Inflammation

Chronic inflammatory skin diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, are caused by the accumulation of immune cells and the overproduction of chemokines, including CCL17 and CCL22, due to the activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted from keratinocytes. In the present study, the inhibitory activity of HM-V on tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)/interferon gamma (IFN-γ)-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines was examined in human keratinocytes (HaCaTs) and 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNCB)-induced chronic skin contact dermatitis animal models. Traditional Asian medicinal herb extracts mixture (HM-V), which have been extensively used in Asian medicine, were utilized. In TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaTs, HM-V strongly inhibited mRNA and protein expression of CCL17 and CCL22 in a concentration-dependent manner. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 was also inhibited. Therefore, localized administration of HM-V in the DNCB-induced animal model alleviated immune cell deposition and skin inflammation. The results indicate that HM-V exerts inhibitory effects on keratinocyte production of CCL17 and CCL22. Furthermore, HM-V may be a useful anti-inflammatory agent for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory skin diseases.

TAK1/AP-1-Targeted Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Barringtonia augusta Methanol Extract

Barringtonia augusta methanol extract (Ba-ME) is a folk medicine found in the wetlands of Thailand that acts through an anti-inflammatory mechanism that is not understood fully. Here, we examine how the methanol extract of Barringtonia augusta (B. augusta) can suppress the activator protein 1 (AP-1) signaling pathway and study the activities of Ba-ME in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 macrophage cell line and an LPS-induced peritonitis mouse model. Non-toxic concentrations of Ba-ME downregulated the mRNA expression of cytokines, such as cyclooxygenase and chemokine ligand 12, in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Transfection experiments with the AP-1-Luc construct, HEK293T cells, and luciferase assays were used to assess whether Ba-ME suppressed the AP-1 functional activation. A Western blot assay confirmed that C-Jun N-terminal kinase is a direct pharmacological target of Ba-ME action. The anti-inflammatory effect of Ba-ME, which functions by β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) inhibition, was confirmed by using an overexpression strategy and a cellular thermal shift assay. In vivo experiments in a mouse model of LPS-induced peritonitis showed the anti-inflammatory effect of Ba-ME on LPS-stimulated macrophages and acute inflammatory mouse models. We conclude that Ba-ME is a promising anti-inflammatory drug targeting TAK1 in the AP-1 pathway.

Antioxidative and Skin Protective Effects of Canarium subulatum Methanol Extract on Keratinocytes

Canarium subulatum is a traditional medical herb used in South Asia. Recently, the anti-inflammatory effects of C. subulatum methanol extract (Cs-ME) have been reported; however, the effect of Cs-ME on skin physiology has not yet been elucidated. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the protective effect of Cs-ME on UV-induced skin aging and cell death as well as the reinforcing effect on the skin barrier. According to viable cell counting and MTT assays, Cs-ME significantly reduced UV-evoked HaCaT cell death. Cs-ME blocked reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in UV-irradiated HaCaT cells and showed radical scavenging activity against DPPH and ABTS. In addition, H2O2-induced cell death was inhibited by Cs-ME, indicating that Cs-ME protects cells from UV-derived cell death through the suppression of ROS. PCR analysis revealed that Cs-ME diminished the expression of aging-related HYAL-1 and MMP-1 genes in UV-treated HaCaT cells. Elevated HYAL-1 and MMP-1 mRNA expression in H2O2-stimulated HaCaT cells was also decreased by Cs-ME, suggesting that Cs-ME exerts antiaging activity via the inhibition of ROS. Expression of skin barrier components including filaggrin and hyaluronic acid synthase-1 was increased by Cs-ME and was modulated by ERK/p38-AP-1 signaling. Collectively, our data show that Cs-ME has cytoprotective and antiaging activity based on antioxidant properties. Furthermore, Cs-ME exerts skin barrier protective ability by regulating the AP-1 signaling pathway. Therefore, Cs-ME has the potential for use as an ingredient in cosmetics to protect the skin from UV irradiation, prevent photoaging, and strengthen the skin barrier.

Comparative Study on Different Skin Pruritus Mouse Models

The animal model is an important tool to study the mechanism of disease formation. Different animal models of pruritus have been adopted based on the purpose of researchers in the study of the itching mechanism. Although the symptoms of various models are quite different, scratching behavior is a key indicator. Therefore, it is necessary to find an animal model that can quickly induce animal scratching and maintain the stability of scratching behavior. In this study, we compared animal models of pruritus induced by four substances and found that the scratching behavior of mice induced by urushiol not only reached the plateau stage quickly but also showed more stability in the plateau phase than that induced by 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene, oxazolone, and imiquimod. Meanwhile, in the animal model induced by urushiol, the changes of epidermal thickening and inflammatory cell aggregation were also more obvious. In addition, pruritus induced by urushiol is prevalent all over the world, especially in the United States and Europe, involving outdoor groups such as firefighters, forest loggers, and farmers. Therefore, we believe that the urushiol-induced animal model is an ideal choice for the study of the itch formation mechanism and the development of antipruritic drugs.

Quantitative aspects of the hydrolysis of ginseng saponins: Application in HPLC-MS analysis of herbal products

Background

Ginseng is one of the most valuable herbal supplements. It is challenging to perform quality control of ginseng products due to the diversity of bioactive saponins in their composition. Acid or alkaline hydrolysis is often used for the structural elucidation of these saponins and sugars in their side chains. Complete transformation of the original ginsenosides into their aglycones during the hydrolysis is one of the ways to determine a total saponin group content. The main hurdle of this approach is the formation of various by-products that was reported by many authors.

Methods

Separate HPLC assessment of the total protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol and ocotillol ginsenoside contents is a viable alternative to the determination of characteristic biomarkers of these saponin groups, such as ginsenoside Rf and pseudoginsenoside F₁₁, which are commonly used for authentication of P. ginseng Meyer and P. quinquefolius L. samples respectively. Moreover, total ginsenoside content is an ideal aggregated parameter for standardization and quality control of ginseng-based medicines, because it can be directly applied for saponin dosage calculation.

Results

Different hydrolysis conditions were tested to develop accurate quantification method for the elucidation of total ginsenoside contents in herbal products. Linearity, limits of quantification, limits of detection, accuracy and precision were evaluated for the developed HPLC-MS method.

Conclusion

Alkaline hydrolysis results in fewer by-products than sugar elimination in acidic conditions. An equimolar response, as a key parameter for quantification, was established for several major ginsenosides. The developed approach has shown acceptable results in the analysis of several different herbal products.

p-coumaric acid, an active ingredient of Panax ginseng, ameliolates atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions through inhibition of thymic stromal lymphopoietin in mice

Background

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is associated with chronic skin inflammatory reactions. p-coumaric acid (pCA) is an active ingredient of Panax ginseng Meyer (Araliaceae).

Methods

Here, we estimated an anti-AD effect of pCA on activated mast cells, activated splenocytes, and a mouse model of AD. Cytokines levels were measured by ELISA and protein activation was analyzed by Western blotting. 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) was used to induce AD-like skin lesions.

Results

The treatment with pCA suppressed the productions and mRNA expressions of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), TNF-ɑ, IL-6, and IL-1β in HMC-1 cells. pCA downregulated the expressions of RIP2 and caspase-1, phosphorylated-(p)p38/pJNK/pERK, and pIKKβ/pIkBɑ/NF-κB in HMC-1 cells. pCA also decreased the productions of TSLP, TNF-ɑ, IL-6, IL-4, and IFN-γ in the supernatant of stimulated splenic cells. Comparing to DNFB-sensitized control group, pCA-treated group alleviated pathological changes of AD-like lesions. pCA decreased the proteins and mRNA expressions levels of TSLP, IL-6, and IL-4 in the skin lesions. Caspase-1 activation was also downregulated by pCA treatment in the AD-like lesions. The serum levels of histamine, IgE, TSLP, TNF-ɑ, IL-6, and IL-4 were suppressed following treatment with pCA.

Conclusion

This study suggests that pCA has the potential to improve AD by suppressing TSLP as well as inflammatory cytokines via blocking of caspase-1/NF-κB signal cascade.