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Cawkwell MJ, Manner VW. Properties of Erythritol Tetranitrate from Molecular Dynamics Simulation. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2024; 128:5749-5758. [PMID: 38595775 PMCID: PMC11000242 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.4c00489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
The nonpolarizable force field for alkyl nitrates developed by Borodin et al. [J. Phys. Chem. B, 2008, 112, 734-742] has been employed to calculate selected properties of crystalline and liquid erythritol tetranitrate (ETN). The set of partial charges proposed by Borodin for pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) was used except for a small correction to the H atom charges to ensure charge neutrality owing to the absence of the neopentyl carbon in ETN. The force field was used to compute the isothermal compression curve, lattice parameters, heat capacity, thermal expansivity, single crystal elastic constants, and Gruneisen parameters of crystalline ETN. The density- and temperature-dependent viscosities of liquid ETN are also reported. We anticipate that these data will be of some utility to the development of equations of state and thermomechanical models for ETN.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Cawkwell
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - V. W. Manner
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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2
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Mittal AK, Pathak P, Prakash G, Maiti D. Highly Scalable and Inherently Safer Preparation of Di, Tri and Tetra Nitrate Esters Using Continuous Flow Chemistry. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202301662. [PMID: 37505482 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202301662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Nitrate esters are important organic compounds having wide application in energetic materials, medicines and fuel additives. They are synthesized through nitration of aliphatic polyols. But the process safety challenges associated with nitration reaction makes the production process complicated and economically unviable. Herein, we have developed a continuous flow process wherein polyol and nitric acid are reacted in a microreactor to produce nitrate ester continuously. Our developed process is inherently safer and efficient. The process was optimized for industrially important nitrate esters containing two, three and four nitro groups. Substrates include glycol dinitrates: 1,2-propylene glycol dinitrate (PGDN), ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN), diethylene glycol dinitrate (DEGDN), triethylene glycol dinitrate (TEGDN); trinitrates: trimethylolethane trinitrate (TMETN), 1,2,4-butanetriol trinitrate (BTTN); and tetranitrates: erythritol tetranitrate (ETN). The optimized process for each molecule provided yield >90 % in a short residence time of 1 min corresponding to a space time yield of >18 g/h/mL of reactor volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Kumar Mittal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Pramod Pathak
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Gaurav Prakash
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
| | - Debabrata Maiti
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai, Mumbai, 400076, India
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3
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Lease N, Klamborowski LM, Perriot R, Cawkwell MJ, Manner VW. Identifying the Molecular Properties that Drive Explosive Sensitivity in a Series of Nitrate Esters. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:9422-9428. [PMID: 36191261 PMCID: PMC9575148 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c02701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Energetic materials undergo hundreds of chemical reactions during exothermic runaway, generally beginning with the breaking of the weakest chemical bond, the "trigger linkage." Herein we report the syntheses of a series of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) derivatives in which the energetic nitrate ester groups are systematically substituted by hydroxyl groups. Because all the PETN derivatives have the same nitrate ester-based trigger linkages, quantum molecular dynamics (QMD) simulations show very similar Arrhenius kinetics for the first reactions. However, handling sensitivity testing conducted using drop weight impact indicates that sensitivity decreases precipitously as nitrate esters are replaced by hydroxyl groups. These experimental results are supported by QMD simulations that show systematic decreases in the final temperatures of the products and the energy release as the nitrate ester functional groups are removed. To better interpret these results, we derive a simple model based only on the specific enthalpy of explosion and the kinetics of trigger linkage rupture that accounts qualitatively for the decrease in sensitivity as nitrate ester groups are removed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Lease
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico87545, United States
| | - Lisa M. Klamborowski
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico87545, United States
| | - Romain Perriot
- Theoretical
Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico87545, United States
| | - Marc J. Cawkwell
- Theoretical
Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico87545, United States
| | - Virginia W. Manner
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico87545, United States
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4
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Manner VW, Smilowitz L, Freye CE, Cleveland AH, Brown GW, Suvorova N, Tian H. Chemical Evaluation and Performance Characterization of Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN) under Melt Conditions. ACS MATERIALS AU 2022; 2:464-473. [PMID: 36855707 PMCID: PMC9928408 DOI: 10.1021/acsmaterialsau.2c00022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) is a nitrate ester explosive commonly used in commercial detonators. Although its degradation properties have been studied extensively, very little information has been collected on its thermal stability in the molten state due to the fact that its melting point is only ∼20 °C below its onset of decomposition. Furthermore, studies that have been performed on PETN thermal degradation often do not fully characterize or quantify the decomposition products. In this study, we heat PETN to melt temperatures and identify thermal decomposition products, morphology changes, and mass loss by ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. For the first time, we quantify several decomposition products using independently prepared standards and establish the resulting melting point depression after the first melt. We also estimate the amount of decomposition relative to sublimation that we measure through gas evolution and evaluate the performance behavior of the molten material in commercial detonator configurations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia W. Manner
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States,
| | - Laura Smilowitz
- Physical
Chemistry and Spectroscopy, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
| | - Chris E. Freye
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
| | - Alexander H. Cleveland
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Brown
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
| | - Natalya Suvorova
- Physical
Chemistry and Spectroscopy, Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
| | - Hongzhao Tian
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87544, United States
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5
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Freye CE, Nguyen TD, Tappan BC. Investigation of the Impurities in Erythritol Tetranitrate (ETN) Using UHPLC‐QTOF. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.202100193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chris E. Freye
- Los Alamos National Laboratory Q-5, High Explosives Science and Technology Los Alamos NM 87545 USA
| | - Thuy‐Ai D. Nguyen
- Los Alamos National Laboratory Q-5, High Explosives Science and Technology Los Alamos NM 87545 USA
| | - Bryce C. Tappan
- Los Alamos National Laboratory Q-5, High Explosives Science and Technology Los Alamos NM 87545 USA
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6
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Lease N, Holmes MD, Englert-Erickson MA, Kay LM, Francois EG, Manner VW. Analysis of Ignition Sites for the Explosives 3,3'-Diamino-4,4'-azoxyfurazan (DAAF) and 1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazoctane (HMX) Using Crush Gun Impact Testing. ACS MATERIALS AU 2021; 1:116-129. [PMID: 36855395 PMCID: PMC9888612 DOI: 10.1021/acsmaterialsau.1c00013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The handling safety characteristics of energetic materials must be measured in order to ensure the safe transport and use of explosives. Drop-weight impact sensitivity measurements are one of the first standardized tests performed for energetics. They utilize a small amount of the explosive sample and a standard weight, which is dropped on the material from various heights to determine its sensitivity. While multiple laboratories have used the impact sensitivity test as an initial screening tool for explosive sensitivity for the past 60 years, variability exists due to the use of different instruments, different methods to determine the initiation, and the scatter commonly associated with less-sensitive explosives. For example, standard explosives such as 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazoctane (HMX) initiate reliably and consistently on the drop-weight impact test, whereas insensitive explosives such as 3,3'-diamino-4,4'-azoxyfurazan (DAAF) exhibit variability in sound levels and the expended material. Herein we investigate the impact sensitivity of DAAF and HMX along with a more detailed investigation of ignition sites using a novel "crush gun" apparatus: a pneumatically powered drop-weight tower with advanced diagnostics, including high-speed visual and infrared cameras. Using this crush gun assembly, the ignition sites in HMX and DAAF were analyzed with respect to the effects of particle size and the presence of a source of grit. The formation of ignition sites was observed in both explosives; however, only HMX showed ignition sites that propagated to a deflagration at lower firing speeds. Finally, the presence of grit particles was shown to increase the occurrence of ignition sites in DAAF at lower firing speeds, though propagation to a full reaction was not observed on the time scale of the test. These results enable a better understanding of how ignition and propagation occurs during the impact testing of DAAF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Lease
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Matthew D. Holmes
- Explosive
Applications and Special Projects, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Michael A. Englert-Erickson
- Explosive
Applications and Special Projects, Los Alamos
National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Lisa M. Kay
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Elizabeth G. Francois
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States,
| | - Virginia W. Manner
- High
Explosives Science & Technology, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States,
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7
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Marrs FW, Manner VW, Burch AC, Yeager JD, Brown GW, Kay LM, Buckley RT, Anderson-Cook CM, Cawkwell MJ. Sources of Variation in Drop-Weight Impact Sensitivity Testing of the Explosive Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.0c06294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Frank W. Marrs
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Virginia W. Manner
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Alexandra C. Burch
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - John D. Yeager
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Brown
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Lisa M. Kay
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Reid T. Buckley
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | | | - Marc J. Cawkwell
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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8
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McLennan L, Brown‐Nash A, Busby T, Canaria J, Kominia A, Smith JL, Oxley JC, Dubnikov F, Kosloff R, Zeiri Y. Characterization of the Hexanitrate Esters of Sugar Alcohols. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.202000197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay McLennan
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - Audreyana Brown‐Nash
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - Taylor Busby
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - Jeffrey Canaria
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - Athina Kominia
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - James L. Smith
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
| | - Jimmie C. Oxley
- Chemistry Department University of Rhode Island 140 Flagg Road Kingston RI 02881
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9
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Klapec DJ, Czarnopys G, Pannuto J. Interpol review of detection and characterization of explosives and explosives residues 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:670-700. [PMID: 33385149 PMCID: PMC7770463 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature for the analysis and detection of explosives and explosives residues from 2016-2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/Resources/Documents#Publications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas J. Klapec
- United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Forensic Science Laboratory, 6000 Ammendale Road, Ammendale, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Greg Czarnopys
- United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Forensic Science Laboratory, 6000 Ammendale Road, Ammendale, MD, 20705, USA
| | - Julie Pannuto
- United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Forensic Science Laboratory, 6000 Ammendale Road, Ammendale, MD, 20705, USA
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10
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Lease N, Kay LM, Brown GW, Chavez DE, Robbins D, Byrd EFC, Imler GH, Parrish DA, Manner VW. Synthesis of Erythritol Tetranitrate Derivatives: Functional Group Tuning of Explosive Sensitivity. J Org Chem 2020; 85:4619-4626. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b03344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Lease
- High Explosives Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Lisa M. Kay
- High Explosives Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Brown
- High Explosives Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - David E. Chavez
- High Explosives Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - David Robbins
- Detonation Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Edward F. C. Byrd
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Adelphi, Maryland 21005, United States
| | - Gregory H. Imler
- U.S. Navy Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, United States
| | - Damon A. Parrish
- U.S. Navy Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, United States
| | - Virginia W. Manner
- High Explosives Science and Technology, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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11
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Bezemer K, McLennan L, van Duin L, Kuijpers CJ, Koeberg M, van den Elshout J, van der Heijden A, Busby T, Yevdokimov A, Schoenmakers P, Smith J, Oxley J, van Asten A. Chemical attribution of the home-made explosive ETN – Part I: Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of partially nitrated erythritol impurities. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 307:110102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.110102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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12
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Cawkwell MJ, Manner VW. Ranking the Drop-Weight Impact Sensitivity of Common Explosives Using Arrhenius Chemical Rates Computed from Quantum Molecular Dynamics Simulations. J Phys Chem A 2019; 124:74-81. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.9b10808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Cawkwell
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - V. W. Manner
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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