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Peng G, Ling X, Lin Y, Jiang H, Ma M, Yu A, Ouyang D. Thermal runaway features of large-format power lithium-ion cells under various thermal abuse patterns and capacities. RSC Adv 2023; 13:31036-31046. [PMID: 37881768 PMCID: PMC10594080 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra06425e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Herein, a comprehensive investigation is performed to research the thermal runaway features of large-format power lithium-ion cells under various heating patterns (2 kW electric heating oven and 600 W electric heating plate) and capacities (60, 150, and 180 Ah). Although the electric heating plate induces the cell to encounter thermal runaway earlier in comparison with the electric heating oven, the combustion does not appear for the former case since the compact stacking of the electric heating plate restrains the heat release of the heater such that the surrounding temperature is too low to induce the ignition of the thermal runaway combustibles. Besides that, it is interesting to find that the color of the ejected products under the electric heating plate condition becomes shallower as the thermal runaway proceeds, which implies that the ejecta in the initial of thermal runaway is mixed with quantities of solid particles and the proportion would gradually decrease. With the increase of the cell capacity, thermal runaway emerges later as a result of the greater cell height which delays the cell temperature rise, when exposed to an electric heating oven. In addition, the cell with a larger capacity demonstrates a lower peak temperature, a lower maximum temperature rise rate, a shorter combustion, a lower flame temperature, and a weaker radiation heat strength during thermal runaway; that is, less heat is released due to its violent thermal runaway behaviour. Finally, the severe explosion risk for the larger-capacity cell should be especially noted considering the larger amount of explosive gases released.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanlin Peng
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
- SINOPEC National Petrochemical Project Risk As-sessment Technical Center Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Xiaodong Ling
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
- SINOPEC National Petrochemical Project Risk As-sessment Technical Center Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Yujie Lin
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
- SINOPEC National Petrochemical Project Risk As-sessment Technical Center Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Hui Jiang
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Mengbai Ma
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Anfeng Yu
- SINOPEC Research Institute of Safety Engineering Co., Ltd. Qingdao 266104 China
| | - Dongxu Ouyang
- College of Safety Science and Engineering, Nanjing Tech University Nanjing 211816 China
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Tschirschwitz R, Bernardy C, Wagner P, Rappsilber T, Liebner C, Hahn SK, Krause U. Harmful effects of lithium-ion battery thermal runaway: scale-up tests from cell to second-life modules. RSC Adv 2023; 13:20761-20779. [PMID: 37435378 PMCID: PMC10332131 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra02881j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
For a comprehensive safety assessment of stationary lithium-ion-battery applications, it is necessary to better understand the consequences of thermal runaway (TR). In this study, experimental tests comprising twelve TR experiments including four single-cell tests, two cell stack tests and six second-life module tests (2.65 kW h and 6.85 kW h) with an NMC-cathode under similar initial conditions were conducted. The temperature (direct at cells/modules and in near field), mass loss, cell/module voltage, and qualitative vent gas composition (Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and diode laser spectroscopy (DLS) for HF) were measured. The results of the tests showed that the battery TR is accompanied by severe and in some cases violent chemical reactions. In most cases, TR was not accompanied by pre-gassing of the modules. Jet flames up to a length of 5 m and fragment throwing to distances to more than 30 m were detected. The TR of the tested modules was accompanied by significant mass loss of up to 82%. The maximum HF concentration measured was 76 ppm, whereby the measured HF concentrations in the module tests were not necessarily higher than that in the cell stack tests. Subsequently, an explosion of the released vent gas occurred in one of the tests, resulting in the intensification of the negative consequences. According to the evaluation of the gas measurements with regard to toxicity base on the "Acute Exposure Guideline Levels" (AEGL), there is some concern with regards to CO, which may be equally as important to consider as the release of HF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rico Tschirschwitz
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Unter den Eichen 87 12205 Berlin Germany
| | - Christopher Bernardy
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Unter den Eichen 87 12205 Berlin Germany
| | - Patrick Wagner
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Unter den Eichen 87 12205 Berlin Germany
| | - Tim Rappsilber
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Unter den Eichen 87 12205 Berlin Germany
| | - Christian Liebner
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Unter den Eichen 87 12205 Berlin Germany
| | - Sarah-K Hahn
- German Fire Protection Association (Vereinigung zur Förderung des Deutschen Brandschutzes e.V.-vfdb) Wolbecker Straße 237 48155 Münster Germany
| | - Ulrich Krause
- Faculty of Process- and Systems Engineering, Institute of Apparatus and Environmental Technology, Otto von Guericke University of Magdeburg Universitätsplatz 2 39106 Magdeburg Germany
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Liu C, Ji H, Liu J, Liu P, Zeng G, Luo X, Guan Q, Mi X, Li Y, Zhang J, Tong Y, Wang Z, Wu S. An emission-free controlled potassium pyrosulfate roasting-assisted leaching process for selective lithium recycling from spent Li-ion batteries. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 153:52-60. [PMID: 36049272 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Recycling critical metals from spent Li-ion batteries (LIBs) is important for the overall sustainability of future batteries. This study reports an improved sulfation roasting technology to efficiently recycle Li and Co from spent LiCoO2 LIBs using potassium pyrosulfate as sulfurizing reagent. By sulfation roasting, LiCoO2 was converted into water-soluble lithium potassium sulfate and water-insoluble cobalt oxide. Under optimal conditions, 98.51% Li was leached in water, with a selectivity of 99.86%. More importantly, sulfur can be recirculated thoroughly, and the sulfur atomic efficiency can be significantly enhanced by controlling the amount of potassium pyrosulfate. Li ions from the water leaching process were recovered by chemical precipitation. Furthermore, application of this technology to other spent LIBs, such as LiMn2O4 and LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2, verified its effectiveness for selective recovery Li. These findings can provide some inspiration for high efficiency and environmentally friendly recovery metal from spent LIBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunli Liu
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Haiyan Ji
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Jiayin Liu
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Pengfei Liu
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Guisheng Zeng
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China.
| | - Xubiao Luo
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Qian Guan
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Xue Mi
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Yingpeng Li
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Jiefei Zhang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Yongfen Tong
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Zhongbing Wang
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
| | - Shaolin Wu
- National-Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Heavy Metals Pollutants Control and Resource Utilization, School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Nanchang Hangkong University, Nanchang 330063, PR China
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Quantification of heat energy leading to failure of 18650 lithium-ion battery abused by external heating. J Loss Prev Process Ind 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2022.104855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Hu X, Mousa E, Ånnhagen L, Musavi Z, Alemrajabi M, Hall B, Ye G. Complex gas formation during combined mechanical and thermal treatments of spent lithium-ion-battery cells. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 431:128541. [PMID: 35359097 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Spent lithium-ion batteries (LIB) contain volatile and reactive chemicals possibly generating toxic and/or flammable gases during the related recycling. In this study, two types of spent LIB cells were subjected to combined mechanical and thermal treatments at the constant temperatures of 20 °C, 120 °C, 200 °C, and 400 °C under a nitrogen atmosphere. A total of 46 gaseous species, including electrolyte components, oxygenated hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons, and others, were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by mass spectrometry. At higher process temperatures, the concentration or volume of the formed gases increased accordingly. Additionally, at and below 120 °C, the formed gaseous species slightly differed depending on the cell type, whereas they were analogous at 400 °C. The formation of different gas species involved the activity of electrolyte volatilization, electrolyte degradation/decomposition, and pyrolysis of the organic separator and binder, followed by complex radical reactions among the species formed by the physicochemical reactions. Possible strategies to mitigate the risks that may arise associated with the gas formation during recycling are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianfeng Hu
- SWERIMAB, Aronstorpsvägen 1, SE-974 37 Luleå, Sweden.
| | - Elsayed Mousa
- SWERIMAB, Aronstorpsvägen 1, SE-974 37 Luleå, Sweden
| | | | - Zari Musavi
- Northvolt AB, Alströmergatan 20, SE-112 47 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Björn Hall
- Stena Recycling International AB, Fiskhamnsgatan 8, SE-400 40 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Guozhu Ye
- SWERIMAB, Aronstorpsvägen 1, SE-974 37 Luleå, Sweden
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Aalund R, Endreddy B, Pecht M. How Gas Generates in Pouch Cells and Affects Consumer Products. FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2022.828375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of today’s consumer electronic products such as cell phones, laptops, and tablets use pouch lithium-ion cells to make the most efficient use of space, compared to cylindrical and prismatic designs. However, eliminating the metal enclosure comes at a cost if the pouch cell swells due to gas generation and damages the product it is contained within. This paper presents various swollen battery examples in consumer products and how companies handle the issues, reviews the mechanisms of the gas generation, and offers solutions to prevent pouch cell swelling from affecting the devices.
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Li L, Ju X, Zhou X, Peng Y, Zhou Z, Cao B, Yang L. Experimental Study on Thermal Runaway Process of 18650 Lithium-Ion Battery under Different Discharge Currents. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14164740. [PMID: 34443262 PMCID: PMC8402224 DOI: 10.3390/ma14164740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) subjected to external heat may be prone to failure and cause catastrophic safety issues. In this work, experiments were conducted to investigate the influence of discharge current on the thermal runaway process under thermal abuse. The calibrated external heat source (20 W) and discharge currents from 1 to 6 A were employed to match the thermal abuse conditions in an operational state. The results indicated that the key parameters during the failure process, such as the total mass loss, the onset temperatures of safety venting and thermal runaway, and the peak temperature, are ultimately determined by the capacity inside the battery, and the discharge current can hardly change it. However, discharge currents can produce extra energy to accelerate the thermal runaway process. Compared with the battery in an open circuit, the onset time of thermal runaway was reduced by 7.4% at 6 A discharge. To quantify the effect of discharge current, the total heat generation by discharge current was calculated. The results show that a heat generation of 1.6 kJ was produced when the battery was discharged at 6 A, which could heat the cell to 34 °C (neglect of heat loss). This study simulates the failure process of the LIB in the operational state, which is expected to help the safety application of LIB and improve the reliability of the battery management system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
| | - Xiaoyu Ju
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology, 1-1 Hibarigaoka, Tempaku, Toyohashi 441-8580, Japan
- Correspondence: (X.J.); (L.Y.)
| | - Xiaodong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
| | - Yang Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
| | - Zhizuan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
| | - Bei Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
| | - Lizhong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (Y.P.); (Z.Z.); (B.C.)
- Correspondence: (X.J.); (L.Y.)
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Barone TL, Dubaniewicz TH, Friend SA, Zlochower IA, Bugarski AD, Rayyan NS. Lithium-ion battery explosion aerosols: Morphology and elemental composition. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR AEROSOL RESEARCH 2021; 55:1183-1201. [PMID: 35923215 PMCID: PMC9345575 DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2021.1938966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Aerosols emitted by the explosion of lithium-ion batteries were characterized to assess potential exposures. The explosions were initiated by activating thermal runaway in three commercial batteries: (1) lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), (2) lithiumiron phosphate (LFP), and (3) lithium titanate oxide (LTO). Post-explosion aerosols were collected on anodisc filters and analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The SEM and EDS analyses showed that aerosol morphologies and compositions were comparable to individual grains within the original battery materials for the NMC cell, which points to the fracture and ejection of the original battery components during the explosion. In contrast, the LFP cell emitted carbonaceous cenospheres, which suggests aerosol formation by the decomposition of organics within molten microspheres. LTO explosion aerosols showed characteristics of both types of emissions. The abundance of elements from the anode, cathode, and separator in respirable aerosols underscored the need for the selection of low-toxicity battery materials due to potential exposures in the event of battery thermal runaway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa L. Barone
- Health Hazards Prevention Branch, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Thomas H. Dubaniewicz
- Mining Systems Safety Branch, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Sherri A. Friend
- Pathology and Physiology Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Isaac A. Zlochower
- Mining Systems Safety Branch, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Aleksandar D. Bugarski
- Health Hazards Prevention Branch, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Naseem S. Rayyan
- Mining Systems Safety Branch, Pittsburgh Mining Research Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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Effects of the Nail Geometry and Humidity on the Nail Penetration of High-Energy Density Lithium Ion Batteries. BATTERIES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/batteries7010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Internal short-circuit tests were carried out in a battery safety investigation chamber to determine the behavior of batteries during the nail penetration test. So far, systematic investigations regarding the test setup and its influence are rarely found in the literature. Especially, to improve the comparability of the multitude of available results, it is essential to understand the effects of the geometric, operating and ambient parameters. In this study commercial lithium ion batteries with a capacity of 5.3 and 3.3 Ah were used to study the influence of the varied parameters on the voltage drop, the development of surface temperatures and of infrared active gas species. We studied both the influence of the geometry of the penetrating nail and concentration of water in the inert atmosphere especially on the quantities of the reaction products under variation of cell capacity. It could be shown that the geometry of the nail, within certain limits, has no influence on the processes of the thermal runaway of high energy density lithium ion batteries (LIBs). However, a change in capacity from 5.3 to 3.3 Ah shows that in particular the gaseous reaction products differ: The standardized gas concentrations show a higher measurable concentration of all gases except CO for the 3.3 Ah LIBs. This circumstance can be explained by the intensity of the reactions due to the different battery capacities: In the 5.3 Ah cells a larger amount of unreacted material is immediately discharged from the reaction center, and by the different available amounts of oxidizing reaction partners. An increase of the water content in the surrounding atmosphere during the thermal runaway leads to a reduction of the measurable gas concentrations of up to 36.01%. In general, all measured concentrations decrease. With increased water content more reaction products from the atmosphere can be directly bound or settle as condensate on surfaces.
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