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Druelle F, Supiot A, Meulemans S, Schouteden N, Molina-Vila P, Rimbaud B, Aerts P, Berillon G. The quadrupedal walking gait of the olive baboon, Papio anubis: an exploratory study integrating kinematics and EMG. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:271005. [PMID: 34292320 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Primates exhibit unusual quadrupedal features (e.g. diagonal gaits, compliant walk) compared with other quadrupedal mammals. Their origin and diversification in arboreal habitats have certainly shaped the mechanics of their walking pattern to meet the functional requirements necessary for balance control in unstable and discontinuous environments. In turn, the requirements for mechanical stability probably conflict with mechanical energy exchange. In order to investigate these aspects, we conducted an integrative study on quadrupedal walking in the olive baboon (Papio anubis) at the Primatology station of the CNRS in France. Based on kinematics, we describe the centre of mass mechanics of the normal quadrupedal gait performed on the ground, as well as in different gait and substrate contexts. In addition, we studied the muscular activity of six hindlimb muscles using non-invasive surface probes. Our results show that baboons can rely on an inverted pendulum-like exchange of energy (57% on average, with a maximal observed value of 84%) when walking slowly (<0.9 m s-1) with a tight limb phase (∼55%) on the ground using diagonal sequence gaits. In this context, the muscular activity is similar to that of other quadrupedal mammals, thus reflecting the primary functions of the muscles for limb movement and support. In contrast, walking on a suspended branch generates kinematic and muscular adjustments to ensure better control and to maintain stability. Finally, walking using the lateral sequence gait increases muscular effort and reduces the potential for high recovery rates. The present exploratory study thus supports the assumption that primates are able to make use of an inverted pendulum mechanism on the ground using a diagonal walking gait, yet a different footfall pattern and substrate appear to influence muscular effort and efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique, UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD, 75116 Paris, France.,Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France.,Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Anthony Supiot
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Assistance Publique des Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), Robert Debré University Hospital, 75004 Paris, France
| | - Silke Meulemans
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Niels Schouteden
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.,Monde Sauvage Safari Parc, 4920 Aywaille, Belgium
| | - Pablo Molina-Vila
- Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | - Brigitte Rimbaud
- Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | - Peter Aerts
- Functional Morphology Laboratory, University of Antwerp, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Movement and Sports Sciences, University of Ghent, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Histoire Naturelle de l'Homme Préhistorique, UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN-UPVD, 75116 Paris, France.,Primatology Station of the CNRS-Celphedia, UAR 846, 13790 Rousset-sur-Arc, France
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2
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Young JW, Chadwell BA, Dunham NT, McNamara A, Phelps T, Hieronymus T, Shapiro LJ. The Stabilizing Function of the Tail During Arboreal Quadrupedalism. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:491-505. [PMID: 34022040 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Locomotion on the narrow and compliant supports of the arboreal environment is inherently precarious. Previous studies have identified a host of morphological and behavioral specializations in arboreal animals broadly thought to promote stability when on precarious substrates. Less well-studied is the role of the tail in maintaining balance. However, prior anatomical studies have found that arboreal taxa frequently have longer tails for their body size than their terrestrial counterparts, and prior laboratory studies of tail kinematics and the effects of tail reduction in focal taxa have broadly supported the hypothesis that the tail is functionally important for maintaining balance on narrow and mobile substrates. In this set of studies, we extend this work in two ways. First, we used a laboratory dataset on three-dimensional segmental kinematics and tail inertial properties in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) to investigate how tail angular momentum is modulated during steady-state locomotion on narrow supports. In the second study, we used a quantitative dataset on quadrupedal locomotion in wild platyrrhine monkeys to investigate how free-ranging arboreal animals adjust tail movements in response to substrate variation, focusing on kinematic measures validated in prior laboratory studies of tail mechanics (including the laboratory data presented). Our laboratory results show that S. boliviensis significantly increase average tail angular momentum magnitudes and amplitudes on narrow supports, and primarily regulate that momentum by adjusting the linear and angular velocity of the tail (rather than via changes in tail posture per se). We build on these findings in our second study by showing that wild platyrrhines responded to the precarity of narrow and mobile substrates by extending the tail and exaggerating tail displacements, providing ecological validity to the laboratory studies of tail mechanics presented here and elsewhere. In conclusion, our data support the hypothesis that the long and mobile tails of arboreal animals serve a biological role of enhancing stability when moving quadrupedally over narrow and mobile substrates. Tail angular momentum could be used to cancel out the angular momentum generated by other parts of the body during steady-state locomotion, thereby reducing whole-body angular momentum and promoting stability, and could also be used to mitigate the effects of destabilizing torques about the support should the animals encounter large, unexpected perturbations. Overall, these studies suggest that long and mobile tails should be considered among the fundamental suite of adaptations promoting safe and efficient arboreal locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
| | - Brad A Chadwell
- Department of Anatomy, Idaho College of Osteopathic Medicine, Meridian, ID 83642, USA
| | - Noah T Dunham
- Department of Conservation and Science, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, Cleveland, OH 44109, USA.,Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Allison McNamara
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Taylor Phelps
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
| | - Tobin Hieronymus
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
| | - Liza J Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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3
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van Bijlert PA, van Soest AJ‘K, Schulp AS. Natural Frequency Method: estimating the preferred walking speed of Tyrannosaurus rex based on tail natural frequency. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:201441. [PMID: 33996115 PMCID: PMC8059583 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.201441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Locomotor energetics are an important determinant of an animal's ecological niche. It is commonly assumed that animals minimize locomotor energy expenditure by selecting gait kinematics tuned to the natural frequencies of relevant body parts. We demonstrate that this allows estimation of the preferred step frequency and walking speed of Tyrannosaurus rex, using an approach we introduce as the Natural Frequency Method. Although the tail of bipedal dinosaurs was actively involved in walking, it was suspended passively by the caudal interspinous ligaments. These allowed for elastic energy storage, thereby reducing the metabolic cost of transport. In order for elastic energy storage to be high, step and natural frequencies would have to be matched. Using a 3D morphological reconstruction and a spring-suspended biomechanical model, we determined the tail natural frequency of T. rex (0.66 s-1, range 0.41-0.84), and the corresponding walking speed (1.28 m s-1, range 0.80-1.64), which we argue to be a good indicator of preferred walking speed (PWS). The walking speeds found here are lower than earlier estimations for large theropods, but agree quite closely with PWS of a diverse group of extant animals. The results are most sensitive to uncertainties regarding ligament moment arms, vertebral kinematics and ligament composition. However, our model formulation and method for estimation of walking speed are unaffected by assumptions regarding muscularity, and therefore offer an independent line of evidence within the field of dinosaur locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasha A. van Bijlert
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A. J. ‘Knoek’ van Soest
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Research Institute Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anne S. Schulp
- Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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4
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Rolian C. Ecomorphological specialization leads to loss of evolvability in primate limbs. Evolution 2020; 74:702-715. [PMID: 31849049 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Primate limb morphology is often described as either generalized, that is, suited to a range of locomotor and positional behaviors, or specialized for unique locomotor behaviors such as brachiation or bipedalism. The evolution of highly specialized limb morphology may result in loss of evolvability, that is, in a decreased capacity of the locomotor skeleton to evolve in response to selection towards alternative ecomorphological niches. Using evolutionary simulations, I show that the highly specialized limb anatomy of hominoids is associated with a significant loss of evolvability, defined as the number of generations to reach alternative adaptive peaks, and in parallel an increased risk of extinction, particularly in simulated evolution toward generalized quadrupedal limb proportions. Loss of evolvability in apes and humans correlates with three factors: (1) decreased correlation among limb bone lengths (i.e., integration), which slows the rate of change along lines of least evolutionary resistance; (2) limb specialization, which places apes and humans in relatively remote areas of morphospace; and (3) increased skeletal size as a proxy for body size. Thus, locomotor over-specialization can lead to evolutionary dead-ends that significantly increase the probability of hominoid populations going extinct before evolving new adaptive morphologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Campbell Rolian
- Department of Comparative Biology and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.,McCaig Institute for Bone and Joint Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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5
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Druelle F, Berthet M, Quintard B. The body center of mass in primates: Is it more caudal than in other quadrupedal mammals? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 169:170-178. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, Biology DepartmentUniversity of Antwerp Campus Drie Eiken (Building D) Antwerp Belgium
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6
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Druelle F, Schoonaert K, Aerts P, Nauwelaerts S, Stevens JMG, D'Août K. Segmental morphometrics of bonobos (Pan paniscus): are they really different from chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)? J Anat 2018; 233:843-853. [PMID: 30294787 PMCID: PMC6231171 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The inertial properties of body segments reflect performance and locomotor habits in primates. While Pan paniscus is generally described as more gracile, lighter in body mass, and as having relatively longer and heavier hindlimbs than Pan troglodytes, both species exhibit very similar patterns of (quadrupedal and bipedal) kinematics, but show slightly different locomotor repertoires. We used a geometric model to estimate the inertial properties for all body segments (i.e. head, trunk, upper and lower arms, hand, thigh, shank and foot) using external length and diameter measurements of 12 anaesthetized bonobos (eight adults and four immatures). We also calculated whole limb inertial properties. When we compared absolute and relative segment morphometric and inertial variables between bonobos and chimpanzees, we found that adult bonobos are significantly lighter than adult chimpanzees. The bonobo is also shorter in head length, upper and lower arm lengths, and foot length, and is generally lighter in most absolute segment mass values (except head and hand). In contrast, the bonobo has a longer trunk. When scaled relative to body mass, most differences disappear between the two species. Only the longer trunk and the shorter head of the bonobo remain apparent, as well as the lighter thigh compared with the chimpanzee. We found similar values of natural pendular periods of the limbs in both species, despite differences in absolute limb lengths, masses, mass centres (for the hindlimb) and moments of inertia. While our data contradict the commonly accepted view that bonobos have relatively longer and heavier hindlimbs than chimpanzees, they are consistent with the observed similarities in the quadrupedal and bipedal kinematics between these species. The morphological differences between both species are more subtle than those previously described from postcranial osteological materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
| | - Kirsten Schoonaert
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
| | - Peter Aerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Department of Movement and Sports SciencesUniversity of GhentGentBelgium
| | - Sandra Nauwelaerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
| | - Jeroen M. G. Stevens
- Antwerp Zoo Centre for Research and ConservationAntwerpBelgium
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology GroupUniversity of AntwerpWilrijkBelgium
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7
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ORSBON COURTNEYP, GIDMARK NICHOLASJ, ROSS CALLUMF. Dynamic Musculoskeletal Functional Morphology: Integrating diceCT and XROMM. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:378-406. [PMID: 29330951 PMCID: PMC5786282 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The tradeoff between force and velocity in skeletal muscle is a fundamental constraint on vertebrate musculoskeletal design (form:function relationships). Understanding how and why different lineages address this biomechanical problem is an important goal of vertebrate musculoskeletal functional morphology. Our ability to answer questions about the different solutions to this tradeoff has been significantly improved by recent advances in techniques for quantifying musculoskeletal morphology and movement. Herein, we have three objectives: (1) review the morphological and physiological parameters that affect muscle function and how these parameters interact; (2) discuss the necessity of integrating morphological and physiological lines of evidence to understand muscle function and the new, high resolution imaging technologies that do so; and (3) present a method that integrates high spatiotemporal resolution motion capture (XROMM, including its corollary fluoromicrometry), high resolution soft tissue imaging (diceCT), and electromyography to study musculoskeletal dynamics in vivo. The method is demonstrated using a case study of in vivo primate hyolingual biomechanics during chewing and swallowing. A sensitivity analysis demonstrates that small deviations in reconstructed hyoid muscle attachment site location introduce an average error of 13.2% to in vivo muscle kinematics. The observed hyoid and muscle kinematics suggest that hyoid elevation is produced by multiple muscles and that fascicle rotation and tendon strain decouple fascicle strain from hyoid movement and whole muscle length. Lastly, we highlight current limitations of these techniques, some of which will likely soon be overcome through methodological improvements, and some of which are inherent. Anat Rec, 301:378-406, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- COURTNEY P. ORSBON
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637
| | | | - CALLUM F. ROSS
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637
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8
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Young JW, Shapiro LJ. Developments in development: What have we learned from primate locomotor ontogeny? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 165 Suppl 65:37-71. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyNortheast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED)Rootstown Ohio, 44272
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of TexasAustin Texas, 78712
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9
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Druelle F, Berthet M. Segmental morphometrics of the southern yellow-cheeked crested gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae): the case study of f. REVUE DE PRIMATOLOGIE 2017. [DOI: 10.4000/primatologie.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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10
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Byron CD, Granatosky MC, Covert HH. An anatomical and mechanical analysis of the douc monkey (genus Pygathrix), and its role in understanding the evolution of brachiation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:801-820. [PMID: 29023639 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Pygathrix is an understudied Asian colobine unusual among the Old World monkeys for its use of arm-swinging. Little data exists on the anatomy and mechanics of brachiation in this genus. Here, we consider this colobine to gain insight into the parallel evolution of suspensory behavior in primates. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study compares axial and appendicular morphological variables of Pygathrix with other Asian colobines. Additionally, to assess the functional consequences of Pygathrix limb anatomy, kinematic and kinetic data during arm-swinging are included to compare the douc monkey to other suspensory primates (Ateles and Hylobates). RESULTS Compared to more pronograde species, Pygathrix and Nasalis share morphology consistent with suspensory locomotion such as its narrower scapulae and elongated clavicles. More distally, Pygathrix displays a gracile humerus, radius, and ulna, and shorter olecranon process. During suspensory locomotion, Pygathrix, Ateles, and Hylobates all display mechanical convergence in limb loading and movements of the shoulder and elbow, but Pygathrix uses pronated wrist postures that include substantial radial deviation during arm-swinging. DISCUSSION The adoption of arm-swinging represents a major shift within at least three anthropoid clades and little data exist about its transition. Across species, few mechanical differences are observed during arm-swinging. Apparently, there are limited functional solutions to the challenges associated with moving bimanually below branches, especially in more proximal forelimb regions. Morphological data support this idea that the Pygathrix distal forelimb differs from apes more than its proximal end. These results can inform other studies of ape evolution, the pronograde to orthograde transition, and the convergent ways in which suspensory locomotion evolved in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Byron
- Department of Biology, Mercer University, Macon, Georgia
| | - M C Granatosky
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - H H Covert
- Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado
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11
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Druelle F, Aerts P, D'Août K, Moulin V, Berillon G. Segmental morphometrics of the olive baboon (Papio anubis): a longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. J Anat 2017; 230:805-819. [PMID: 28294323 PMCID: PMC5442150 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The linear dimensions and inertial characteristics of the body are important in locomotion and they change considerably during the ontogeny of animals, including humans. This longitudinal and ontogenetic study has produced the largest dataset to date of segmental morphometrics in a Catarrhini species, the olive baboon. The objectives of the study were to quantify the changes in body linear and inertial dimensions and to explore their (theoretical) mechanical significance for locomotion. We took full-body measurements of captive individuals at regular intervals. Altogether, 14 females and 16 males were followed over a 7-year period, i.e. from infancy to adulthood. Our results show that individual patterns of growth are very consistent and follow the general growth pattern previously described in olive baboons. Furthermore, we obtained similar growth curve structures for segment lengths and masses, although the respective time scales were slightly different. The most significant changes in body morphometrics occurred during the first 2 years of life and concerned the distal parts of the body. Females and males were similar in size and shape at birth. The rate and duration of growth produced substantial size-related differences throughout ontogeny, while body shapes remained very similar between the sexes. We also observed significant age-related variations in limb composition, with a proximal shift of the centre of mass within the limbs, mainly due to changes in mass distribution and in the length of distal segments. Finally, we observed what we hypothesize to be 'early biomechanical optimization' of the limbs for quadrupedal walking. This is due to a high degree of convergence between the limbs' natural pendular periods in infants, which may facilitate the onset of quadrupedal walking. Furthermore, the mechanical significance of the morphological changes observed in growing baboons may be related to changing functional demands with the onset of autonomous (quadrupedal) locomotion. From a wider perspective, these data provide unique insights into questions surrounding both the processes of locomotor development in primates and how these processes might evolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
| | - Peter Aerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human MovementDepartment of Movement and Sport SciencesUniversity of GhentGhentBelgium
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | | | - Gilles Berillon
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
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12
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Scaling of rotational inertia of primate mandibles. J Hum Evol 2017; 106:119-132. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 02/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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Kilbourne BM, Carrier DR. Manipulated Changes in Limb Mass and Rotational Inertia in Trotting Dogs (
Canis lupus familiaris
) and Their Effect on Limb Kinematics. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 325:665-674. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Revised: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology University of Chicago Chicago Illinois
- Department of Science & Education Field Museum of Natural History Chicago Illinois
- College for Life Sciences Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin Berlin Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde Leibniz‐Institut für Evolutions‐ und Biodiversitätsforschung Berlin Germany
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14
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Druelle F, Berillon G, Aerts P. Intrinsic limb morpho-dynamics and the early development of interlimb coordination of walking in a quadrupedal primate. J Zool (1987) 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- F. Druelle
- Functional Morphology Laboratory; Biology Department; University of Antwerp; Antwerp Belgium
- Station de Primatologie; UPS 846 CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; UPR 2147 CNRS; Paris France
- Département de Préhistoire; Musée de l'Homme; UMR 7194 CNRS-MNHN; Paris France
| | - G. Berillon
- Station de Primatologie; UPS 846 CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; UPR 2147 CNRS; Paris France
- Département de Préhistoire; Musée de l'Homme; UMR 7194 CNRS-MNHN; Paris France
| | - P. Aerts
- Functional Morphology Laboratory; Biology Department; University of Antwerp; Antwerp Belgium
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences; Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement; University of Ghent; Gent Belgium
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15
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Druelle F, Aerts P, Berillon G. Effect of body mass distribution on the ontogeny of positional behaviors in non-human primates: Longitudinal follow-up of infant captive olive baboons (Papio anubis). Am J Primatol 2016; 78:1201-1221. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Laboratory; University of Antwerp; Antwerpen Belgium
- Primatology Station CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- UPR 2147 CNRS; Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; Paris France
| | - Peter Aerts
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Laboratory; University of Antwerp; Antwerpen Belgium
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences, Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement; University of Ghent; Gent Belgium
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Primatology Station CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- UPR 2147 CNRS; Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; Paris France
- UMR 7194 du CNRS, Département de Préhistoire; Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Paris France
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16
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Burgess ML, Schmitt D, Zeininger A, McFarlin SC, Zihlman AL, Polk JD, Ruff CB. Ontogenetic scaling of fore limb and hind limb joint posture and limb bone cross-sectional geometry in vervets and baboons. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2016; 161:72-83. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Loring Burgess
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Baltimore MD
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; Durham NC
| | - Angel Zeininger
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; Durham NC
| | - Shannon C. McFarlin
- Department of Anthropology; Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, the George Washington University; Washington DC
| | | | - John D. Polk
- Department of Anthropology; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; Urbana IL
| | - Christopher B. Ruff
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Baltimore MD
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Selby MS, Simpson SW, Lovejoy CO. The Functional Anatomy of the Carpometacarpal Complex in Anthropoids and Its Implications for the Evolution of the Hominoid Hand. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2016; 299:583-600. [PMID: 26916787 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2014] [Revised: 11/01/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we described several features of the carpometacarpal joints in extant large-bodied apes that are likely adaptations to the functional demands of vertical climbing and suspension. We observed that all hominids, including modern humans and the 4.4-million-year-old hominid Ardipithecus ramidus, lacked these features. Here, we assess the uniqueness of these features in a large sample of monkey, ape, and human hands. These new data provide additional insights into the functional adaptations and evolution of the anthropoid hand. Our survey highlights a series of anatomical adaptations that restrict motion between the second and third metacarpals (MC2 and MC3) and their associated carpals in extant apes, achieved via joint reorganization and novel energy dissipation mechanisms. Their hamate-MC4 and -MC5 joint surface morphologies suggest limited mobility, at least in Pan. Gibbons and spider monkeys have several characters (angled MC3, complex capitate-MC3 joint topography, variably present capitate-MC3 ligaments) that suggest functional convergence in response to suspensory locomotion. Baboons have carpometacarpal morphology suggesting flexion/extension at these joints beyond that observed in most other Old World monkeys, probably as an energy dissipating mechanism minimizing collision forces during terrestrial locomotion. All hominids lack these specializations of the extant great apes, suggesting that vertical climbing was never a central feature of our ancestral locomotor repertoire. Furthermore, the reinforced carpometacarpus of vertically climbing African apes was likely appropriated for knuckle-walking in concert with other novel potential energy dissipating mechanisms. The most parsimonious explanation of the structural similarity of these carpometacarpal specializations in great apes is that they evolved independently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Selby
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Georgia Campus-Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine, Suwanee, Georgia
| | - Scott W Simpson
- Department of Anatomy, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 1 Wade Oval Drive, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - C Owen Lovejoy
- Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 1 Wade Oval Drive, Cleveland, Ohio
- Department of Anthropology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio
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Chirchir H. A comparative study of trabecular bone mass distribution in cursorial and non-cursorial limb joints. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2014; 298:797-809. [PMID: 25403099 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal design among cursorial animals is a compromise between a stable body that can withstand locomotor stress and a light design that is energetically inexpensive to grow, maintain, and move. Cursors have been hypothesized to reduce distal musculoskeletal mass to maintain a balance between safety and energetic cost due to an exponential increase in energetic demand observed during the oscillation of the distal limb. Additionally, experimental research shows that the cortical bone in distal limbs experiences higher strains and remodeling rates, apparently maintaining lower mass at the expense of a smaller safety factor. This study tests the hypothesis that the trabecular bone mass in the distal limb epiphyses of cursors is relatively lower than that in the proximal limb epiphyses to minimize the energetic cost of moving the limb. This study utilized peripheral quantitative computed tomography scanning to measure the trabecular mass in the lower and upper limb epiphyses of hominids, cercopithecines, and felids that are considered cursorial and non-cursorial. One-way ANOVA with Tukey post hoc corrections was used to test for significant differences in trabecular mass across limb epiphyses. The results indicate that overall, both cursors and non-cursors exhibit varied trabecular mass in limb epiphyses and, in certain instances, conform to a proximal-distal decrease in mass irrespective of cursoriality. Specifically, hominid and cercopithecine hind limb epiphyses exhibit a proximal-distal decrease in mass irrespective of cursorial adaptations. These results suggest that cursorial mammals employ other energy saving mechanisms to minimize energy costs during running.
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Affiliation(s)
- Habiba Chirchir
- Human Origins Program, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, 20013; Center for the Advanced Study of Hominid Paleobiology, George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20052
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19
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW, VandeBerg JL. Body size and the small branch niche: Using marsupial ontogeny to model primate locomotor evolution. J Hum Evol 2014; 68:14-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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20
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Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, Rodman PS. Bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion in chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 2014; 66:64-82. [PMID: 24315239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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21
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Kilbourne BM, Hoffman LC. Scale effects between body size and limb design in quadrupedal mammals. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78392. [PMID: 24260117 PMCID: PMC3832634 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently the metabolic cost of swinging the limbs has been found to be much greater than previously thought, raising the possibility that limb rotational inertia influences the energetics of locomotion. Larger mammals have a lower mass-specific cost of transport than smaller mammals. The scaling of the mass-specific cost of transport is partly explained by decreasing stride frequency with increasing body size; however, it is unknown if limb rotational inertia also influences the mass-specific cost of transport. Limb length and inertial properties--limb mass, center of mass (COM) position, moment of inertia, radius of gyration, and natural frequency--were measured in 44 species of terrestrial mammals, spanning eight taxonomic orders. Limb length increases disproportionately with body mass via positive allometry (length ∝ body mass(0.40)); the positive allometry of limb length may help explain the scaling of the metabolic cost of transport. When scaled against body mass, forelimb inertial properties, apart from mass, scale with positive allometry. Fore- and hindlimb mass scale according to geometric similarity (limb mass ∝ body mass(1.0)), as do the remaining hindlimb inertial properties. The positive allometry of limb length is largely the result of absolute differences in limb inertial properties between mammalian subgroups. Though likely detrimental to locomotor costs in large mammals, scale effects in limb inertial properties appear to be concomitant with scale effects in sensorimotor control and locomotor ability in terrestrial mammals. Across mammals, the forelimb's potential for angular acceleration scales according to geometric similarity, whereas the hindlimb's potential for angular acceleration scales with positive allometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Geology, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Louwrens C. Hoffman
- Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape Province, South Africa
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Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ. A new look at the Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis: the importance of swing phase. Biol Open 2013; 2:1032-6. [PMID: 24167713 PMCID: PMC3798186 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20135165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis (DSH) suggests that when animals of different size walk at similar Froude numbers (equal ratios of inertial and gravitational forces) they will use similar size-corrected gaits. This application of similarity theory to animal biomechanics has contributed to fundamental insights in the mechanics and evolution of a diverse set of locomotor systems. However, despite its popularity, many mammals fail to walk with dynamically similar stride lengths, a key element of gait that determines spontaneous speed and energy costs. Here, we show that the applicability of the DSH is dependent on the inertial forces examined. In general, the inertial forces are thought to be the centripetal force of the inverted pendulum model of stance phase, determined by the length of the limb. If instead we model inertial forces as the centripetal force of the limb acting as a suspended pendulum during swing phase (determined by limb center of mass position), the DSH for stride length variation is fully supported. Thus, the DSH shows that inter-specific differences in spatial kinematics are tied to the evolution of limb mass distribution patterns. Selection may act on morphology to produce a given stride length, or alternatively, stride length may be a "spandrel" of selection acting on limb mass distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Raichlen
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, PO Box 210030, Tucson, AZ 85721-00030, USA
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
- New York Consortium for Evolutionary Primatology, New York, USA
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Avenue, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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23
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Kilbourne BM. On birds: scale effects in the neognath hindlimb and differences in the gross morphology of wings and hindlimbs. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Institute for Systematic Zoology & Evolutionary Biology; Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena; Erbertstraße 1; 07743; Jena; Thüringen; Germany
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Ross CF, Blob RW, Carrier DR, Daley MA, Deban SM, Demes B, Gripper JL, Iriarte-Diaz J, Kilbourne BM, Landberg T, Polk JD, Schilling N, Vanhooydonck B. THE EVOLUTION OF LOCOMOTOR RHYTHMICITY IN TETRAPODS. Evolution 2012; 67:1209-17. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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25
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El Helou A, Gracies JM, Decq P, Skalli W. Estimating foot inertial parameters: a new regression approach. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2012; 27:299-305. [PMID: 22036453 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2011.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2011] [Revised: 09/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Estimating the inertial parameters for the foot (mass, center of mass position and inertia tensor) is important for applications involving the ankle joint such as inverse dynamics or stiffness measurement techniques (e.g. Quick-release). Scaling equations relying on foot length and body mass are widely used. However, because of the complex foot geometry, such equations may represent an oversimplified solution. Our aim was to evaluate these approaches and propose a new method. METHODS Thirty-four right feet (17 Males, mean age and weight 30 years, 75 kg; 17 Females, 32 years, 61.5 kg) were reconstructed using a 3D surface scanner and used as geometrical references. Associated inertial parameters were calculated directly on each reference assuming a uniform density distribution and were compared to corresponding scaling and multiple regression estimates. Finally, an alternative method, based on multiple non-linear regressions, was proposed considering both foot length (L) and ankle width (W). FINDINGS Comparisons showed that reference mass and moments of inertia were greater than scaling predictions with mean difference up to 33 and 16% for mass and moments of inertia respectively. The maximum standard errors of estimate for scaled moments of inertia reached 26%. The alternative solution involving ankle width in the equations lowered the gap with reference data (8.7% max standard errors of estimate) for both genders. INTERPRETATION This strategy, requiring two simple and accessible measurements, may offer a better practicality/relevance compromise for clinical routine use, in regards to existing scaling and regression equations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A El Helou
- Arts et Métiers ParisTech, LBM, 151 bd de l'Hôpital, Paris, France.
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26
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW. Kinematics of quadrupedal locomotion in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps): effects of age and substrate size. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:480-96. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.062588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Arboreal mammals face unique challenges to locomotor stability. This is particularly true with respect to juveniles, who must navigate substrates similar to those traversed by adults, despite a reduced body size and neuromuscular immaturity. Kinematic differences exhibited by juveniles and adults on a given arboreal substrate could therefore be due to differences in body size relative to substrate size, to differences in neuromuscular development, or to both. We tested the effects of relative body size and age on quadrupedal kinematics in a small arboreal marsupial (the sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps; body mass range of our sample 33-97 g). Juvenile and adult P. breviceps were filmed moving across a flat board and three poles 2.5, 1.0 and 0.5 cm in diameter. Sugar gliders (regardless of age or relative speed) responded to relative decreases in substrate diameter with kinematic adjustments that promote stability; they increased duty factor, increased the average number of supporting limbs during a stride, increased relative stride length and decreased relative stride frequency. Limb phase increased when moving from the flat board to the poles, but not among poles. Compared with adults, juveniles (regardless of relative body size or speed) used lower limb phases, more pronounced limb flexion, and enhanced stability with higher duty factors and a higher average number of supporting limbs during a stride. We conclude that although substrate variation in an arboreal environment presents similar challenges to all individuals, regardless of age or absolute body size, neuromuscular immaturity confers unique problems to growing animals, requiring kinematic compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-0303, USA
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeastern Ohio Medical University (NEOMED, formerly known as the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
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Hanna JB, Schmitt D. Comparative triceps surae morphology in primates: a review. ANATOMY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 2011:191509. [PMID: 22567288 PMCID: PMC3335445 DOI: 10.1155/2011/191509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Primate locomotor evolution, particularly the evolution of bipedalism, is often examined through morphological studies. Many of these studies have examined the uniqueness of the primate forelimb, and others have examined the primate hip and thigh. Few data exist, however, regarding the myology and function of the leg muscles, even though the ankle plantar flexors are highly important during human bipedalism. In this paper, we draw together data on the fiber type and muscle mass variation in the ankle plantar flexors of primates and make comparisons to other mammals. The data suggest that great apes, atelines, and lorisines exhibit similarity in the mass distribution of the triceps surae. We conclude that variation in triceps surae may be related to the shared locomotor mode exhibited by these groups and that triceps surae morphology, which approaches that of humans, may be related to frequent use of semiplantigrade locomotion and vertical climbing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jandy B. Hanna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lewisburg, WV 24901, USA
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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28
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Kivell TL, Schmitt D, Wunderlich RE. Hand and foot pressures in the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) reveal novel biomechanical trade-offs required for walking on gracile digits. J Exp Biol 2010; 213:1549-57. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.040014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Arboreal animals with prehensile hands must balance the complex demands of bone strength, grasping and manipulation. An informative example of this problem is that of the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis), a rare lemuriform primate that is unusual in having exceptionally long, gracile fingers specialized for foraging. In addition, they are among the largest primates to engage in head-first descent on arboreal supports, a posture that should increase loads on their gracile digits. We test the hypothesis that aye-ayes will reduce pressure on their digits during locomotion by curling their fingers off the substrate. This hypothesis was tested using simultaneous videographic and pressure analysis of the hand, foot and digits for five adult aye-ayes during horizontal locomotion and during ascent and descent on a 30° instrumented runway. Aye-ayes consistently curled their fingers during locomotion on all slopes. When the digits were in contact with the substrate, pressures were negligible and significantly less than those experienced by the palm or pedal digits. In addition, aye-ayes lifted their hands vertically off the substrate instead of ‘toeing-off’ and descended head-first at significantly slower speeds than on other slopes. Pressure on the hand increased during head-first descent relative to horizontal locomotion but not as much as the pressure increased on the foot during ascent. This distribution of pressure suggests that aye-ayes shift their weight posteriorly during head-first descent to reduce loads on their gracile fingers. This research demonstrates several novel biomechanical trade-offs to deal with complex functional demands on the mammalian skeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L. Kivell
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Box 90383, Durham, NC 27708, USA
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, Leipzig, D-04103, Germany
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Box 90383, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Roshna E. Wunderlich
- Department of Biology, James Madison University, MSC 7801, Harrisonburg, VA 22807, USA
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Patel BA. The interplay between speed, kinetics, and hand postures during primate terrestrial locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2010; 141:222-34. [PMID: 19639641 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Nonprimate terrestrial mammals may use digitigrade postures to help moderate distal limb joint moments and metapodial stresses that may arise during high-speed locomotion with high-ground reaction forces (GRF). This study evaluates the relationships between speed, GRFs, and distal forelimb kinematics in order to evaluate if primates also adopt digitigrade hand postures during terrestrial locomotion for these same reasons. Three cercopithecine monkey species (Papio anubis, Macaca mulatta, Erythrocebus patas) were videotaped moving unrestrained along a horizontal runway instrumented with a force platform. Three-dimensional forelimb kinematics and GRFs were measured when the vertical force component reached its peak. Hand posture was measured as the angle between the metacarpal segment and the ground (MGA). As predicted, digitigrade hand postures (larger MGA) are associated with shorter GRF moment arms and lower wrist joint moments. Contrary to expectations, individuals used more palmigrade-like (i.e. less digitigrade) hand postures (smaller MGA) when the forelimb was subjected to higher forces (at faster speeds) resulting in potentially larger wrist joint moments. Accordingly, these primates may not use their ability to alter their hand postures to reduce rising joint moments at faster speeds. Digitigrady at slow speeds may improve the mechanical advantage of antigravity muscles crossing the wrist joint. At faster speeds, greater palmigrady is likely caused by joint collapse, but this posture may be suited to distribute higher GRFs over a larger surface area to lower stresses throughout the hand. Thus, a digitigrade hand posture is not a cursorial (i.e. high speed) adaptation in primates and differs from that of other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biren A Patel
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Stony Brook University, NY 11794-8081, USA.
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30
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Patel BA. Functional morphology of cercopithecoid primate metacarpals. J Hum Evol 2010; 58:320-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2009] [Revised: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Patel BA. Not so fast: Speed effects on forelimb kinematics in cercopithecine monkeys and implications for digitigrade postures in primates. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 140:92-112. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ, Sockol MD. Understanding hind limb weight support in chimpanzees with implications for the evolution of primate locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 138:395-402. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, Sockol MD. The metabolic cost of walking in humans, chimpanzees, and early hominins. J Hum Evol 2009; 56:43-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Revised: 06/17/2008] [Accepted: 07/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Raichlen DA. The effects of gravity on human walking: a new test of the dynamic similarity hypothesis using a predictive model. J Exp Biol 2008; 211:2767-72. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.020073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARYThe dynamic similarity hypothesis (DSH) suggests that differences in animal locomotor biomechanics are due mostly to differences in size. According to the DSH, when the ratios of inertial to gravitational forces are equal between two animals that differ in size [e.g. at equal Froude numbers, where Froude =velocity2/(gravity × hip height)], their movements can be made similar by multiplying all time durations by one constant, all forces by a second constant and all linear distances by a third constant. The DSH has been generally supported by numerous comparative studies showing that as inertial forces differ (i.e. differences in the centripetal force acting on the animal due to variation in hip heights), animals walk with dynamic similarity. However, humans walking in simulated reduced gravity do not walk with dynamically similar kinematics. The simulated gravity experiments did not completely account for the effects of gravity on all body segments, and the importance of gravity in the DSH requires further examination. This study uses a kinematic model to predict the effects of gravity on human locomotion,taking into account both the effects of gravitational forces on the upper body and on the limbs. Results show that dynamic similarity is maintained in altered gravitational environments. Thus, the DSH does account for differences in the inertial forces governing locomotion (e.g. differences in hip height)as well as differences in the gravitational forces governing locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, 1009 E. South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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35
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Sockol MD, Raichlen DA, Pontzer H. Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:12265-9. [PMID: 17636134 PMCID: PMC1941460 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0703267104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipedal walking is evident in the earliest hominins [Zollikofer CPE, Ponce de Leon MS, Lieberman DE, Guy F, Pilbeam D, et al. (2005) Nature 434:755-759], but why our unique two-legged gait evolved remains unknown. Here, we analyze walking energetics and biomechanics for adult chimpanzees and humans to investigate the long-standing hypothesis that bipedalism reduced the energy cost of walking compared with our ape-like ancestors [Rodman PS, McHenry HM (1980) Am J Phys Anthropol 52:103-106]. Consistent with previous work on juvenile chimpanzees [Taylor CR, Rowntree VJ (1973) Science 179:186-187], we find that bipedal and quadrupedal walking costs are not significantly different in our sample of adult chimpanzees. However, a more detailed analysis reveals significant differences in bipedal and quadrupedal cost in most individuals, which are masked when subjects are examined as a group. Furthermore, human walking is approximately 75% less costly than both quadrupedal and bipedal walking in chimpanzees. Variation in cost between bipedal and quadrupedal walking, as well as between chimpanzees and humans, is well explained by biomechanical differences in anatomy and gait, with the decreased cost of human walking attributable to our more extended hip and a longer hindlimb. Analyses of these features in early fossil hominins, coupled with analyses of bipedal walking in chimpanzees, indicate that bipedalism in early, ape-like hominins could indeed have been less costly than quadrupedal knucklewalking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D. Sockol
- *Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - David A. Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721; and
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130
- To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Department of Anthropology, Washington University, 119 McMillan Hall, St. Louis, MO 63130. E-mail:
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Young JW, Patel BA, Stevens NJ. Body mass distribution and gait mechanics in fat-tailed dwarf lemurs (Cheirogaleus medius) and patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). J Hum Evol 2007; 53:26-40. [PMID: 17512970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2007.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2006] [Revised: 12/04/2006] [Accepted: 01/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Most quadrupeds walk with lateral sequence (LS) gaits, where hind limb touchdowns are followed by ipsilateral forelimb touchdowns. Primates, however, typically walk with diagonal sequence (DS) gaits, where hind limb touchdowns are followed by contralateral forelimb touchdowns. Because the use of DS gaits is nearly ubiquitous among primates, understanding gait selection in primates is critical to understanding primate locomotor evolution. The Support Polygon Model [Tomita, M., 1967. A study on the movement pattern of four limbs in walking. J. Anthropol. Soc. Nippon 75, 120-146; Rollinson, J., Martin, R.D., 1981. Comparative aspects of primate locomotion, with special reference to arboreal cercopithecines. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 48, 377-427] argues that primates' use of DS gaits stems from a more caudal position of the whole-body center of mass (COM) relative to other mammals. We tested the predictions of the Support Polygon Model by examining the effects of natural and experimental variations in COM position on gait mechanics in two distantly related primates: fat-tailed dwarf lemurs (Cheirogaleus medius) and patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas). Dwarf lemur experiments compared individuals with and without a greatly enlarged tail (a feature associated with torpor that can be expected to shift the COM caudally). During patas monkey experiments, we experimentally shifted the COM cranially with the use of a weighted belt (7-12% of body mass) positioned above the scapulae. Examination of limb kinematics revealed changes consistent with systematic deviations in COM position. Nevertheless, footfall patterns changed in a direction contrary to the predictions of the Support Polygon Model in the dwarf lemurs and did not change at all in the patas monkey. These results suggest that body mass distribution is unlikely to be the sole determinant of footfall pattern in primates and other mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W Young
- Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.
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Schoonaert K, D'Août K, Aerts P. Morphometrics and inertial properties in the body segments of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J Anat 2007; 210:518-31. [PMID: 17451529 PMCID: PMC2375742 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00720.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inertial characteristics and dimensions of the body and body segments form an integral part of a biomechanical analysis of motion. In primate studies, however, segment inertial parameters of non-human hominoids are scarce and often obtained using varying techniques. Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to expand the existing chimpanzee inertial property data set using a non-invasive measuring technique. We also considered age- and sex-related differences within our sample. By means of a geometric model based on Crompton et al. (1996; Am J Phys Anthropol 99, 547-570) we generated inertial properties using external segment length and diameter measurements of 53 anaesthetized chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We report absolute inertial parameters for immature and mature subjects and for males and females separately. Proportional data were computed to allow the comparison between age classes and sex classes. In addition, we calculated whole limb inertial properties and we discuss their potential biomechanical consequences. We found no significant differences between the age classes in the proportional data except for hand and foot measures where juveniles exhibit relatively longer and heavier distal segments than adults. Furthermore, most sex-related differences can be directly attributed to the higher absolute segment masses in male chimpanzees resulting in higher moments of inertia. Additionally, males tend to have longer upper limbs than females. However, regarding proportional data we discuss the general inertial properties of the chimpanzee. The described segment inertial parameters of males and females, and of the two age classes, represent a valuable data set ready for use in a range of biomechanical locomotor models. These models offer great potential for improving our understanding of early hominin locomotor patterns.
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Wall-Scheffler CM, Myers MJ, Steudel-Numbers K. The application to bipeds of a geometric model of lower-limb-segment inertial properties. J Hum Evol 2006; 51:320-6. [PMID: 16730780 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2005] [Revised: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 04/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Drawing inferences about locomotor energetics from limb morphology, especially in regard to small differences between individuals, depends critically on valid estimates of lower-limb inertial properties. While there are numerous options for such estimations in the literature, geometric models that involve simple measures and straightforward mathematics combined with the ability to capture individual variation are rare. In this research, we apply a method, originally developed for quadrupeds, that models limb segments as elliptical columns. When the elliptical model is applied to bipeds, it provides a means of estimating limb-segment inertial properties accurately enough to test differences between individuals of similar stature and mass, but with variation in mass distribution and limb length. We test the method against commonly used equations and are able to show the validity of the method for thigh and shank segments.
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Isler K, Payne RC, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, Li Y, Savage R, Crompton RH. Inertial properties of hominoid limb segments. J Anat 2006; 209:201-18. [PMID: 16879599 PMCID: PMC2100316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00588.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative, accurate data regarding the inertial properties of body segments are of paramount importance when developing musculo-skeletal locomotor models of living animals and, by inference, their ancestors. The limited number of available primate cadavers, and the destructive nature of the post-mortem, result in such data being very rare for primates. This study builds on the work of Crompton et al. (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1996, 99, 547-570) and reports inertial properties of the body segments of gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans and gibbons. Segment mass, centre of mass and the radius of gyration of five ape cadavers were measured using a complex-pendulum technique and compared with the results derived from external measurements of segment lengths and diameters on the same animals. With additional data from external measurements of eight more hominoid cadavers, and published data, intergeneric differences between the inertial properties and the distribution of mass between limb segments are analysed and related to the locomotor habits of the species. We found that segment inertial properties show extensive overlap between ape genera as a result of large interindividual variation. Segment mass distribution also overlaps between apes and humans, with the exception of the shank segment. However, owing to a different distribution of mass between the limb segments, the centre of mass of both the arms and the legs is located more distally in apes than in humans, and the natural pendular period of ape forelimbs is larger than that of the hindlimbs. This suggests that, in contrast to the limbs of cursorial mammals and cercopithecoid primates, hominoid limbs are not optimized for efficiency in quadrupedal walking, but rather reflect a compromise between various locomotor modes. Common chimpanzees may have secondarily evolved a more efficient quadrupedal gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Isler
- University of Zürich-Irchel, Zürich, Switzerland.
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Payne RC, Crompton RH, Isler K, Savage R, Vereecke EE, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, D'Août K. Morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. I. Muscle architecture. J Anat 2006; 208:709-24. [PMID: 16761973 PMCID: PMC2100225 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00563.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/16/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
We present quantitative data on the hindlimb musculature of Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla gorilla, Gorilla gorilla graueri, Pongo pygmaeus abelii and Hylobates lar and discuss the findings in relation to the locomotor habits of each. Muscle mass and fascicle length data were obtained for all major hindlimb muscles. Physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) was estimated. Data were normalized assuming geometric similarity to allow for comparison of animals of different size/species. Muscle mass scaled closely to (body mass)(1.0) and fascicle length scaled closely to (body mass)(0.3) in most species. However, human hindlimb muscles were heavy and had short fascicles per unit body mass when compared with non-human apes. Gibbon hindlimb anatomy shared some features with human hindlimbs that were not observed in the non-human great apes: limb circumferences tapered from proximal-to-distal, fascicle lengths were short per unit body mass and tendons were relatively long. Non-human great ape hindlimb muscles were, by contrast, characterized by long fascicles arranged in parallel, with little/no tendon of insertion. Such an arrangement of muscle architecture would be useful for locomotion in a three dimensionally complex arboreal environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Payne
- Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hatfield, UK.
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Vereecke EE, D'Août K, Aerts P. Locomotor versatility in the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar): A spatiotemporal analysis of the bipedal, tripedal, and quadrupedal gaits. J Hum Evol 2006; 50:552-67. [PMID: 16516949 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2005] [Revised: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 12/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study gives a qualitative and quantitative description of the different terrestrial locomotor modes of a group of white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) from the Wild Animal Park Planckendael, Belgium. The gibbons were filmed during voluntary locomotion on a grassy and smooth substrate and on a pole. These video images allowed us to define seven different gait types, based on spatial and temporal footfall patterns. Consequent digitization of the video images (n = 254) yielded duty factors, stride lengths, and stride frequencies of the fore- and hind limbs during locomotion at a wide range of speeds. These spatiotemporal gait characteristics were regressed against velocity, and the regression lines of the different gait types were compared. In addition, gibbon bipedalism was compared with bonobo (Pan paniscus) and human bipedalism. Gibbons appear to be very versatile animals, using a bipedal, tripedal, or quadrupedal gait during terrestrial travel with an overlapping speed range. The spatiotemporal characteristics of these gaits are largely similar, although they have clearly distinct footfall patterns. Bipedal walking on the pole is slightly different from terrestrial bipedalism, but differences between substrate types (grass vs. catwalk) are subtle. During bipedalism, gibbons increase both stride length and frequency to increase speed, just as humans and bonobos do, but at a given speed, gibbons take relatively larger strides at lower rates. Bipedal walking in gibbons also appears to be relatively fast-gibbons could keep on walking at speeds where humans have to start running. Apparently, adaptations for arboreal locomotion have not constrained the terrestrial locomotor abilities of gibbons. This may indicate that the step from an arboreal ancestral ape to a terrestrial, upright bipedal hominin might not be difficult and that structural specializations are not a prerequisite for adopting a (non-habitual) bipedal gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evie E Vereecke
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 B-2610 Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium.
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Shapiro LJ, Raichlen DA. Limb proportions and the ontogeny of quadrupedal walking in infant baboons (
Papio cynocephalus
). J Zool (1987) 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00082.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - D. A. Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Payne RC, Crompton RH, Isler K, Savage R, Vereecke EE, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, D’Août K. Morphological analysis of the hindlimb in apes and humans. I. Muscle architecture. J Anat 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00433.x-i1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Raichlen DA. Effects of limb mass distribution on mechanical power outputs during quadrupedalism. J Exp Biol 2006; 209:633-44. [PMID: 16449558 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYMany researchers have suggested that cursorial mammals concentrate limb muscle mass proximally to reduce energy costs during locomotion. Although supported by experiments where mass is added to an individual's limbs, mammals with naturally occurring distally heavy limbs such as primates have similar energy costs compared with other mammals. This study presents a new hypothesis to explain how animals with distally heavy limbs maintain low energy costs. Since distal mass should increase energy costs due to higher amounts of muscular power outputs, this hypothesis is based on the divergent effects of stride frequency on internal and external power outputs (the power output to move the limbs and the body center of mass, respectively). The use of low stride frequencies reduces limb velocities and therefore decreases internal power, while associated long strides increase the vertical displacement of the body center of mass and therefore increase external power. Total power (the sum of internal and external power) may therefore not differ among mammals with different limb mass distributions. To test this hypothesis, I examined a sample of infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) during ontogeny and compared them with more cursorial mammals. Limb mass distribution changes with age (from distal to more proximally concentrated) in baboons, and the infants used shorter strides and higher stride frequencies when limb mass was most proximally concentrated. Compared with non-primates who have more proximally concentrated limb mass, the infants used longer strides and lower stride frequencies. Relatively low internal power was associated with low stride frequencies in both the intra- and inter-specific samples. However, only in the inter-specific comparison were relatively long strides associated with high external power outputs. In both the intra-specific and the inter-specific samples, total power did not differ between groups who differed in limb mass distribution. The results of this study suggest that a trade-off mechanism is available to quadrupeds with distally heavy limbs allowing them to maintain similar total power outputs (and likely similar energy costs) compared with mammals with more proximally concentrated limb mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Raichlen DA. Effects of limb mass distribution on the ontogeny of quadrupedalism in infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) and implications for the evolution of primate quadrupedalism. J Hum Evol 2006; 49:415-31. [PMID: 15998533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2004] [Revised: 04/29/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Primate quadrupedal kinematics differ from those of other mammals. Several researchers have suggested that primate kinematics are adaptive for safe travel in an arboreal, small-branch niche. This study tests a compatible hypothesis that primate kinematics are related to their limb mass distribution patterns. Primates have more distally concentrated limb mass than most other mammals due to their grasping hands and feet. Experimental studies have shown that increasing distal limb mass by adding weights to the limbs of humans and dogs influences kinematics. Adding weights to distal limb elements increases the natural period of a limb's oscillation, leading to relatively long swing and stride durations. It is therefore possible that primates' distal limb mass is responsible for some of their unique kinematics. This hypothesis was tested using a longitudinal ontogenetic sample of infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus). Because limb mass distribution changes with age in infant primates, this project examined how these changes influence locomotor kinematics within individuals. The baboons in this sample showed a shift in their kinematics as their limb mass distributions changed during ontogeny. When their limb mass was most distally concentrated (at young ages), stride frequencies were relatively low, stride lengths were relatively long, and stance durations were relatively long compared to older ages when limb mass was more proximally concentrated. These results suggest that the evolution of primate quadrupedal kinematics was tied to the evolution of grasping hands and feet.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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Steudel-Numbers K, Weaver TD. Froude number corrections in anthropological studies. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2006; 131:27-32. [PMID: 16485296 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The Froude number has been widely used in anthropology to adjust for size differences when comparing gait parameters or other nonmorphological locomotor variables (such as optimal walking speed or speed at gait transitions) among humans, nonhuman primates, and fossil hominins. However, the dynamic similarity hypothesis, which is the theoretical basis for Froude number corrections, was originally developed and tested at much higher taxonomic levels, for which the ranges of variation are much greater than in the intraspecific or intrageneric comparisons typical of anthropological studies. Here we present new experimental data on optimal walking speed and the mass-specific cost of transport at that speed from 19 adult humans walking on a treadmill, and evaluate the predictive power of the dynamic similarity hypothesis in this sample. Contrary to the predictions of the dynamic similarity hypothesis, we found that the mass-specific cost of transport at experimentally measured optimal walking speed and Froude number were not equal across individuals, but retained a significant correlation with body mass. Overall, the effect of lower limb length on optimal walking speed was weak. These results suggest that the Froude number may not be an effective way for anthropologists to correct for size differences across individuals, but more studies are needed. We suggest that researchers first determine whether geometric similarity characterizes their data before making inferences based on the dynamic similarity hypothesis, and then check the consistency of their results with and without Froude number corrections before drawing any firm conclusions.
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Stevens NJ. Stability, limb coordination and substrate type: the ecorelevance of gait sequence pattern in primates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 305:953-63. [PMID: 17029277 DOI: 10.1002/jez.a.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The coordination of limb movements during mammalian locomotion has been well documented in the literature. Most mammals use lateral sequence (LS) gaits, in which a forelimb follows an ipsilateral hind limb during the stride cycle. Primates, however, tend to utilize diagonal sequence (DS) gaits, whereby a contralateral forelimb follows a given hind limb during the stride cycle. A number of scenarios have been offered to explain why primates favor DS gaits, most of them relating to the use of the arboreal habitat and, in particular, the exploitation of a terminal branch niche. Yet to date, there is surprisingly little evidence to support the advantage of DS gaits for negotiating different aspects of the terminal branch environment. Nonetheless, it is apparent that primates possess unique morphologies and a higher than typically recognized degree of flexibility in gait sequence pattern, both of which likely offer advantages for moving upon discontinuous and unstable terminal branches. This paper reviews potential explanations for the use of DS gaits in primates and considers mechanisms by which gait sequence may be altered during different types of arboreal challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Jeanne Stevens
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, USA.
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48
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Ontogeny of muscle mechanical advantage in capuchin monkeys ( Cebus albifrons and Cebus apella ). J Zool (1987) 2005. [DOI: 10.1017/s0952836905007521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Raichlen DA. Ontogeny of limb mass distribution in infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus). J Hum Evol 2005; 49:452-67. [PMID: 16011842 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2004] [Accepted: 05/26/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Primates have more distally distributed limb muscle mass compared to most nonprimate mammals. The heavy distal limbs of primates are likely related to their strong manual and pedal grasping abilities, and interspecific differences in limb mass distributions among primates are correlated with the amount of time spent on arboreal supports. Within primate species, individuals at different developmental stages appear to differ in limb mass distribution patterns. For example infant macaques have more distally distributed limb mass at young ages. A shift from distal to proximal limb mass concentrations coincides with a shift from dependent travel (grasping their mother's hair) to independent locomotion. Because the functional demands placed on limbs may differ between taxa, understanding the ontogeny of limb mass distribution patterns is likely an essential element in interpreting the diversity of limb mass distribution patterns present in adult primates. This study examines changes in limb inertial properties during ontogeny in a longitudinal sample of infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus). The results of this study show that infant baboons undergo a transition from distal to proximal limb mass distribution patterns. This transition in limb mass distribution coincides with the transition from dependent to independent locomotion during infant development. Compared to more arboreal macaques, infant baboons undergo a faster transition to more proximal limb mass distribution patterns. These results suggest that functional demands placed on the limbs during ontogeny have a strong impact on the development of limb mass distribution patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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