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Bleuze MM. Changes in limb bone diaphyseal structure in chimpanzees during development. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 184:e24942. [PMID: 38602254 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study tests if femoral and humeral cross-sectional geometry (CSG) and cross-sectional properties (CSPs) in an ontogenetic series of wild-caught chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ssp.) reflect locomotor behavior during development. The goal is to clarify the relationship between limb bone structure and locomotor behavior during ontogeny in Pan. MATERIALS AND METHODS The latex cast method was used to reconstruct cross sections at the midshaft femur and mid-distal humerus. Second moments of area (SMAs) (Ix, Iy, Imax, Imin), which are proportional to bending rigidity about a specified axis, and the polar SMA (J), which is proportional to average bending rigidity, were calculated at section locations. Cross-sectional shape (CSS) was assessed from Ix/Iy and Imax/Imin ratios. Juvenile and adult subsamples were compared. RESULTS Juveniles and adults have significantly greater femoral J compared to humeral J. Mean interlimb proportions of J are not significantly different between the groups. There is an overall decreasing trend in diaphyseal circularity between the juvenile phase of development and adulthood, although significant differences are only found in the humerus. DISCUSSION Juvenile chimpanzee locomotion includes forelimb- and hindlimb-biased behaviors. Juveniles and adults preferentially load their hindlimbs relative to their forelimbs. This may indicate similar locomotor behavior, although other explanations including a diversity of hindlimb-biased locomotor behaviors in juveniles cannot be ruled out. Different ontogenetic trends in forelimb and hindlimb CSS are consistent with limb bone CSG reflecting functional adaptation, albeit the complex nature of bone functional adaptation requires cautious interpretations of skeletal functional morphology from biomechanical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele M Bleuze
- Institutional affiliation: Department of Anthropology, California State University Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Mason B, Piel AK, Modrý D, Petrželková KJ, Stewart FA, Pafčo B. Association of human disturbance and gastrointestinal parasite infection of yellow baboons in western Tanzania. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0262481. [PMID: 35020760 PMCID: PMC8754341 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0262481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Human disturbance is an ongoing threat to many wildlife species, manifesting as habitat destruction, resource overuse, or increased disease exposure, among others. With increasing human: non-human primate (NHP) encounters, NHPs are increasingly susceptible to human-introduced diseases, including those with parasitic origins. As such, epidemiology of parasitic disease is becoming an important consideration for NHP conservation strategies. To investigate the relationship between parasite infections and human disturbance we studied yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) living outside of national park boundaries in western Tanzania, collecting 135 fresh faecal samples from nine troops occupying areas with varying levels of human disturbance. We fixed all samples in 10% formalin and later evaluated parasite prevalence and abundance (of isotrichid ciliates and Strongylida). We identified seven protozoan and four helminth taxa. Taxa showed varied relationships with human disturbance, baboon troop size and host age. In four taxa, we found a positive association between prevalence and troop size. We also report a trend towards higher parasite prevalence of two taxa in less disturbed areas. To the contrary, high levels of human disturbance predicted increased abundance of isotrichid ciliates, although no relationship was found between disturbance and Strongylida abundance. Our results provide mixed evidence that human disturbance is associated with NHP parasite infections, highlighting the need to consider monitoring parasite infections when developing NHP conservation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethan Mason
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Alex K. Piel
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Greater Mahale Ecosystem Research and Conservation (GMERC) Project, Busongola, Tanzania
| | - David Modrý
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources/CINeZ, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Klára J. Petrželková
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Fiona A. Stewart
- Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Greater Mahale Ecosystem Research and Conservation (GMERC) Project, Busongola, Tanzania
- School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Barbora Pafčo
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
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Wang L, Wei X, Liang X, Zhang Z. Ontogenetic changes of hindlimb muscle mass in Cabot's tragopan (Galliformes, Phasianidae) and their functional implications. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 304:2841-2855. [PMID: 33625793 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cabot's tragopan (Tragopan caboti) is a vulnerable species, endemic to south-east China. It usually nests in trees and is more arboreal than other pheasants, but the myological features related to its arboreal habits are not well known. In the present study, 10 carcasses of this pheasant including hatchling chicks, juveniles, and adults, were dissected to obtain measurements of leg muscle mass, which is an important determinant of force-generation capacity. The results showed that isometry prevailed for growth in muscle mass. Scaling patterns of individual muscles were presumed to correlate with the more arboreal habits of the species. Comparison of muscle mass distribution across age groups demonstrated a distal to proximal gradient in muscle development. A higher percentage of hip and thigh muscles in the adult should be favorable for the birds to maintain an upright standing posture, and to increase speed by means of additional use of femoral retraction. Knee extensors were found to be the most massive among eight functional groups, suggesting that they have a very important role during terrestrial movement. Greater relative mass of digital flexors in hatchling chicks is correlated with breeding ecology, further revealing the importance of grasping ability in the early stages of postnatal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinsen Wei
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinxin Liang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Zihui Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
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Boulinguez-Ambroise G, Herrel A, Berillon G, Young JW, Cornette R, Meguerditchian A, Cazeau C, Bellaiche L, Pouydebat E. Increased performance in juvenile baboons is consistent with ontogenetic changes in morphology. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2021; 175:546-558. [PMID: 33483958 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In many primates, the greater proportion of climbing and suspensory behaviors in the juvenile repertoire likely necessitates good grasping capacities. Here, we tested whether very young individuals show near-maximal levels of grasping strength, and whether such an early onset of grasping performance could be explained by ontogenetic variability in the morphology of the limbs in baboons. MATERIAL AND METHODS We quantified a performance trait, hand pull strength, at the juvenile and adult stages in a cross-sectional sample of 15 olive baboons (Papio anubis). We also quantified bone dimensions (i.e., lengths, widths, and heights) of the fore- (n = 25) and hind limb (n = 21) elements based on osteological collections covering the whole development of olive baboons. RESULTS One-year old individuals demonstrated very high pull strengths (i.e., 200% of the adult performance, relative to body mass), that are consistent with relatively wider phalanges and digit joints in juveniles. The mature proportions and shape of the forelimb elements appeared only at full adulthood (i.e., ≥4.5 years), whereas the mature hind limb proportions and shape were observed much earlier during development. DISCUSSION These changes in limb performance and morphology across ontogeny may be explained with regard to behavioral transitions that olive baboons experience during their development. Our findings highlight the effect of infant clinging to mother, an often-neglected feature when discussing the origins of grasping in primates. The differences in growth patterns, we found between the forelimb and the hind limb further illustrate their different functional roles, having likely evolved under different ecological pressures (manipulation and locomotion, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégoire Boulinguez-Ambroise
- Mecanismes Adaptatifs et Évolution UMR7179, CNRS-National Museum of Natural History, Paris Cedex 5, France.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive UMR7290, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Univ, Marseille, France.,Station de Primatologie CNRS, Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Mecanismes Adaptatifs et Évolution UMR7179, CNRS-National Museum of Natural History, Paris Cedex 5, France
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Station de Primatologie CNRS, Rousset-sur-Arc, France.,Département Homme et Environnement, Musée de L'Homme, UMR 7194 CNRS-MNHN, Place du Trocadéro, Paris, France
| | - Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, USA
| | - Raphaël Cornette
- Origine, Structure et Evolution de la Biodiversité, UMR 7205, CNRS/MNHN, Paris, France
| | - Adrien Meguerditchian
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive UMR7290, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Univ, Marseille, France.,Station de Primatologie CNRS, Rousset-sur-Arc, France
| | | | | | - Emmanuelle Pouydebat
- Mecanismes Adaptatifs et Évolution UMR7179, CNRS-National Museum of Natural History, Paris Cedex 5, France
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Young JW, Hyde A, German R. Ontogeny of intrinsic digit proportions in laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus): a test of the grasping theory of primate hand and foot growth. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH, USA
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED, Rootstown, OH, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Alexander Hyde
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH, USA
| | - Rebecca German
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED), Rootstown, OH, USA
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED, Rootstown, OH, USA
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
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Druelle F, Berthet M, Quintard B. The body center of mass in primates: Is it more caudal than in other quadrupedal mammals? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 169:170-178. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Revised: 02/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, Biology DepartmentUniversity of Antwerp Campus Drie Eiken (Building D) Antwerp Belgium
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Young JW, Shapiro LJ. Developments in development: What have we learned from primate locomotor ontogeny? AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 165 Suppl 65:37-71. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyNortheast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED)Rootstown Ohio, 44272
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of TexasAustin Texas, 78712
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Druelle F, Young J, Berillon G. Behavioral implications of ontogenetic changes in intrinsic hand and foot proportions in olive baboons (Papio Anubis). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 165:65-76. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional Morphology, Department of Biology; University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1; Antwerpen, B-2610 Belgium
- Primatology Station of the CNRS, UPS 846, RD 56; Rousset-sur-Arc, 13790 France
| | - Jesse Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology; Northeast Ohio Medical University, NEOMED 4209 State Route 44; Rootstown Ohio 44272
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Primatology Station of the CNRS, UPS 846, RD 56; Rousset-sur-Arc, 13790 France
- Département de Préhistoire; Musée de L'Homme, UMR 7194 CNRS-MNHN, Place du Trocadéro; Paris, 75116 France
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Abstract
Positional behavior (posture and locomotion) studies are a category of primatological and anthropological field research that attempts to describe movement capabilities and expressed behavior within an evolutionary, ecological, and/or morphological context. This area of research is appealing because it allows the integration of morphological data (capabilities) with expressed behaviors and provides a basis for understanding fossil reconstruction. Because positional behavior acts as a mediator between the biology and the environment, it offers information about virtually all aspects of a primate's life. We are currently undergoing an increase in the number of field projects focusing on the development of positional behaviors in immature primates, and results suggest that in many species positional competence develops relatively early. In this review, I present information on recent positional behavior studies with a focus on how positional behavior develops in young primates. Research on immature primates suggests that natural selection operates at all life stages to influence survival and that the adult positional repertoire likely reflects the challenges confronted by younger individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Bezanson
- Department of Anthropology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California 95053
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Druelle F, Berthet M. Segmental morphometrics of the southern yellow-cheeked crested gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae): the case study of f. REVUE DE PRIMATOLOGIE 2017. [DOI: 10.4000/primatologie.2767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Druelle F, Aerts P, D'Août K, Moulin V, Berillon G. Segmental morphometrics of the olive baboon (Papio anubis): a longitudinal study from birth to adulthood. J Anat 2017; 230:805-819. [PMID: 28294323 PMCID: PMC5442150 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The linear dimensions and inertial characteristics of the body are important in locomotion and they change considerably during the ontogeny of animals, including humans. This longitudinal and ontogenetic study has produced the largest dataset to date of segmental morphometrics in a Catarrhini species, the olive baboon. The objectives of the study were to quantify the changes in body linear and inertial dimensions and to explore their (theoretical) mechanical significance for locomotion. We took full-body measurements of captive individuals at regular intervals. Altogether, 14 females and 16 males were followed over a 7-year period, i.e. from infancy to adulthood. Our results show that individual patterns of growth are very consistent and follow the general growth pattern previously described in olive baboons. Furthermore, we obtained similar growth curve structures for segment lengths and masses, although the respective time scales were slightly different. The most significant changes in body morphometrics occurred during the first 2 years of life and concerned the distal parts of the body. Females and males were similar in size and shape at birth. The rate and duration of growth produced substantial size-related differences throughout ontogeny, while body shapes remained very similar between the sexes. We also observed significant age-related variations in limb composition, with a proximal shift of the centre of mass within the limbs, mainly due to changes in mass distribution and in the length of distal segments. Finally, we observed what we hypothesize to be 'early biomechanical optimization' of the limbs for quadrupedal walking. This is due to a high degree of convergence between the limbs' natural pendular periods in infants, which may facilitate the onset of quadrupedal walking. Furthermore, the mechanical significance of the morphological changes observed in growing baboons may be related to changing functional demands with the onset of autonomous (quadrupedal) locomotion. From a wider perspective, these data provide unique insights into questions surrounding both the processes of locomotor development in primates and how these processes might evolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
| | - Peter Aerts
- Laboratory for Functional MorphologyBiology DepartmentUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
- Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human MovementDepartment of Movement and Sport SciencesUniversity of GhentGhentBelgium
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | | | - Gilles Berillon
- Département de PréhistoireMusée de l'HommeUMR 7194 CNRS‐MNHNParisFrance
- Primatology StationUPS 846 CNRSRousset‐sur‐ArcFrance
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Zeininger A, Shapiro LJ, Raichlen DA. Ontogenetic changes in limb postures and their impact on effective limb length in baboons (P
apio cynocephalus
). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:231-241. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Angel Zeininger
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; Box 90383 Durham North Carolina 27708
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology; The University of Texas at Austin; 2201 Speedway C3200 Austin Texas 78712
| | - David A. Raichlen
- School of Anthropology; The University of Arizona; 1009 E. South Campus Dr Tucson Arizona 85721
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Young JW, Heard-Booth AN. Grasping primate development: Ontogeny of intrinsic hand and foot proportions in capuchin monkeys (Cebus albifronsandSapajus apella). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2016; 161:104-15. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology; Northeast Ohio Medical University (NEOMED); Rootstown Ohio 44272
- Musculoskeletal Biology Research Focus Area, NEOMED; Rootstown Ohio 44272
- School of Biomedical Sciences; Kent State University; Kent Ohio 44240
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Druelle F, Aerts P, Berillon G. Effect of body mass distribution on the ontogeny of positional behaviors in non-human primates: Longitudinal follow-up of infant captive olive baboons (Papio anubis). Am J Primatol 2016; 78:1201-1221. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Laboratory; University of Antwerp; Antwerpen Belgium
- Primatology Station CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- UPR 2147 CNRS; Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; Paris France
| | - Peter Aerts
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Laboratory; University of Antwerp; Antwerpen Belgium
- Department of Movement and Sport Sciences, Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement; University of Ghent; Gent Belgium
| | - Gilles Berillon
- Primatology Station CNRS; Rousset-sur-Arc France
- UPR 2147 CNRS; Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine; Paris France
- UMR 7194 du CNRS, Département de Préhistoire; Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle; Paris France
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Kilbourne BM, Andrada E, Fischer MS, Nyakatura JA. Morphology and motion: hindlimb proportions and swing phase kinematics in terrestrially locomoting charadriiform birds. J Exp Biol 2016; 219:1405-16. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.124081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Differing limb proportions in terms of length and mass, as well as differences in mass being concentrated proximally or distally, influence the limb's moment of inertia (MOI), which represents its resistance to being swung. Limb morphology—including limb segment proportions—thus likely has direct relevance for the metabolic cost of swinging the limb during locomotion. However, it remains largely unexplored how differences in limb proportions influence limb kinematics during swing phase. To test whether differences in limb proportions are associated with differences in swing phase kinematics, we collected hindlimb kinematic data from three species of charadriiform birds differing widely in their hindlimb proportions: lapwings, oystercatchers, and avocets. Using these three species, we tested for differences in maximum joint flexion, maximum joint extension, and range of motion (RoM), in addition to differences in maximum segment angular velocity and excursion. We found that the taxa with greater limb MOI—oystercatchers and avocets—flex their limbs more than lapwings. However, we found no consistent differences in joint extension and RoM among species. Likewise, we found no consistent differences in limb segment angular velocity and excursion, indicating that differences in limb inertia in these three avian species do not necessarily underlie the rate or extent of limb segment movements. The observed increased limb flexion among these taxa with distally heavy limbs resulted in reduced MOI of the limb when compared to a neutral pose. A trade-off between exerting force to actively flex the limb and potential savings by a reduction of MOI is skewed towards reducing the limb's MOI due to MOI being in part a function of the radius of gyration squared. Increased limb flexion likely is a means to lower the cost of swinging the limbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon M. Kilbourne
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
- College for Life Sciences, Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, 14193 Berlin, Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Emanuel Andrada
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
| | - Martin S. Fischer
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
| | - John A. Nyakatura
- Institut für Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Erbertstraße 1, 00743 Jena, Germany
- Image Knowledge Gestaltung—an Interdisciplinary Laboratory, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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Druelle F, Aerts P, Berillon G. Bipedality from locomotor autonomy to adulthood in captive olive baboon (Papio anubis): Cross-sectional follow-up and first insight into the impact of body mass distribution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 159:73-84. [PMID: 26293421 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2014] [Revised: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Despite that the biomechanics of standing and walking bipedally has been extensively studied in nonhuman primates, the morphological features that may constrain, or facilitate, the control of balance and thus of the spontaneous occurrence of bipedal behavior are poorly known. We aim to test the relationship between body mass distribution and bipedal behavior using a nonhuman primate species, the olive baboon, Papio anubis, raised in captivity. MATERIALS AND METHODS We collected quantitative data on the frequency and duration of bipedalism together with morphometrics on a sample of 22 individuals. We used ontogenetic changes as a natural experiment that provides insights into the impact of morphology. Specifically we focus on 1) quantifying how body mass distribution changes from infancy to adulthood in baboons; and 2) whether the different patterns of mass distribution influence the behavioral variables, i.e., a) the frequency and b) the duration of bouts of bipedal behavior realized in different activity contexts. RESULTS With regard to assisted bipedal behaviors, the duration and frequency of bouts of standing, contrary to walking, are significantly related to age. With regard to unassisted bipedal behaviors, no correlation to age is observed; the bout duration of walking is strongly correlated to body mass and mass distribution, contrary to the frequency of walking as well as the bout duration and frequency of bipedal standing. DISCUSSION Our results suggest a close relationship between the pattern of mass distribution and the mechanism of balance control in the spontaneous bipedal walking of baboons. The mechanical effects of the pattern of mass distribution on the ability to perform bipedally in extant nonhuman primates are discussed in the context of the evolution toward habitual bipedalism.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Druelle
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, B-2610, Belgium.,UPR 2147 CNRS - Dynamique De L'évolution Humaine, Paris, 75014, France
| | - Peter Aerts
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerpen, B-2610, Belgium
| | - Gilles Berillon
- UPR 2147 CNRS - Dynamique De L'évolution Humaine, Paris, 75014, France
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An ontogenetic framework linking locomotion and trabecular bone architecture with applications for reconstructing hominin life history. J Hum Evol 2015; 81:1-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Zhu WW, Garber PA, Bezanson M, Qi XG, Li BG. Age- and sex-based patterns of positional behavior and substrate utilization in the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana). Am J Primatol 2014; 77:98-108. [PMID: 25219793 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Body mass plays an important role in primate positional behavior and in sexually dimorphic arboreal primate species may influence how immature and adult individuals travel through the forest canopy and access food resources. In this study, we examined age- and sex-based patterns of positional behavior and substrate utilization in wild golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana), an endangered species of Asian colobine. Our results indicated that among all age and sex classes, sitting was the most common feeding and resting posture and during travel, quadrupedal walking was the dominant locomotor behavior. Despite the fact that adult male R. roxellana are reported to exhibit a body mass nearly two times that of adult females, we found no significant sex differences in the positional repertoire during feeding and traveling. In addition, we found that while infants and juveniles used similar postural and locomotor behaviors as their adult counterparts, younger golden snub-nosed monkeys more frequently engaged in risky or escape-oriented behaviors such as climbing, running, leaping, and forelimb suspension. With increasing age, the use of quadrupedal walking and dropping (downward in-air displacement of body mass that does not require hindlimb propulsion) increased and the use of leaping, suspensory postures, and bridging decreased. Finally, given differences in the positional repertoire of adult and immature golden snub-nosed monkeys, we argue that studies of ontogenetic patterns of positional behavior should emphasize what it takes to survive at each life stage rather than what it takes to match an adult repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Wen Zhu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi'an, China; College of Animal Sciences and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China
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Diogo R, Molnar JL, Smith TD. The Anatomy and Ontogeny of the Head, Neck, Pectoral, and Upper Limb Muscles ofLemur cattaandPropithecus coquereli(Primates): Discussion on the Parallelism Between Ontogeny and Phylogeny and Implications for Evolutionary and Developmental Biology. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2014; 297:1435-53. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Diogo
- Department of Anatomy; Howard University College of Medicine; District of Columbia
| | - Julia L. Molnar
- Department of Anatomy; Howard University College of Medicine; District of Columbia
| | - Timothy D. Smith
- School of Physical Therapy; Slippery Rock University; Slippery Rock Pennsylvania
- Department of Anthropology; University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Pennsylvania
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20
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW, VandeBerg JL. Body size and the small branch niche: Using marsupial ontogeny to model primate locomotor evolution. J Hum Evol 2014; 68:14-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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21
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Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, Rodman PS. Bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion in chimpanzees. J Hum Evol 2014; 66:64-82. [PMID: 24315239 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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22
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Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ. A new look at the Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis: the importance of swing phase. Biol Open 2013; 2:1032-6. [PMID: 24167713 PMCID: PMC3798186 DOI: 10.1242/bio.20135165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The Dynamic Similarity Hypothesis (DSH) suggests that when animals of different size walk at similar Froude numbers (equal ratios of inertial and gravitational forces) they will use similar size-corrected gaits. This application of similarity theory to animal biomechanics has contributed to fundamental insights in the mechanics and evolution of a diverse set of locomotor systems. However, despite its popularity, many mammals fail to walk with dynamically similar stride lengths, a key element of gait that determines spontaneous speed and energy costs. Here, we show that the applicability of the DSH is dependent on the inertial forces examined. In general, the inertial forces are thought to be the centripetal force of the inverted pendulum model of stance phase, determined by the length of the limb. If instead we model inertial forces as the centripetal force of the limb acting as a suspended pendulum during swing phase (determined by limb center of mass position), the DSH for stride length variation is fully supported. Thus, the DSH shows that inter-specific differences in spatial kinematics are tied to the evolution of limb mass distribution patterns. Selection may act on morphology to produce a given stride length, or alternatively, stride length may be a "spandrel" of selection acting on limb mass distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Raichlen
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, PO Box 210030, Tucson, AZ 85721-00030, USA
| | - Herman Pontzer
- Department of Anthropology, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
- New York Consortium for Evolutionary Primatology, New York, USA
| | - Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Avenue, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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23
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Druelle F, Berillon G. Bipedal Behaviour in Olive Baboons: Infants versus Adults in a Captive Environment. Folia Primatol (Basel) 2013; 84:347-61. [DOI: 10.1159/000353115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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24
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Shapiro LJ, Young JW. Kinematics of quadrupedal locomotion in sugar gliders (Petaurus breviceps): effects of age and substrate size. J Exp Biol 2012; 215:480-96. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.062588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Arboreal mammals face unique challenges to locomotor stability. This is particularly true with respect to juveniles, who must navigate substrates similar to those traversed by adults, despite a reduced body size and neuromuscular immaturity. Kinematic differences exhibited by juveniles and adults on a given arboreal substrate could therefore be due to differences in body size relative to substrate size, to differences in neuromuscular development, or to both. We tested the effects of relative body size and age on quadrupedal kinematics in a small arboreal marsupial (the sugar glider, Petaurus breviceps; body mass range of our sample 33-97 g). Juvenile and adult P. breviceps were filmed moving across a flat board and three poles 2.5, 1.0 and 0.5 cm in diameter. Sugar gliders (regardless of age or relative speed) responded to relative decreases in substrate diameter with kinematic adjustments that promote stability; they increased duty factor, increased the average number of supporting limbs during a stride, increased relative stride length and decreased relative stride frequency. Limb phase increased when moving from the flat board to the poles, but not among poles. Compared with adults, juveniles (regardless of relative body size or speed) used lower limb phases, more pronounced limb flexion, and enhanced stability with higher duty factors and a higher average number of supporting limbs during a stride. We conclude that although substrate variation in an arboreal environment presents similar challenges to all individuals, regardless of age or absolute body size, neuromuscular immaturity confers unique problems to growing animals, requiring kinematic compensation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712-0303, USA
| | - Jesse W. Young
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeastern Ohio Medical University (NEOMED, formerly known as the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine), Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
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25
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Baker JJ, Searight KJ, Stump MA, Kehrer MB, Shanafelt C, Graham E, Smith TD. Hip anatomy and ontogeny of lower limb musculature in three species of nonhuman primates. ANATOMY RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2011; 2011:580864. [PMID: 22567295 PMCID: PMC3335645 DOI: 10.1155/2011/580864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Revised: 04/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The hip region is examined to determine what aspects of musculoskeletal anatomy are precociously developed in primate species with highly specialized modes of locomotion. Muscles of the hind limb were removed and weighed in each specimen, and the hip joint of selected specimens was studied in stained serial sections. No perinatal differences among species are evident, but in adults, the hip joint of Galago moholi (a leaping specialist) appears to have proportionally thick articular cartilage (relative to the subchondral plate) compared to two species of cheirogaleids. Muscle mass distribution in the hind limbs confirms previous observations that the quadriceps femoris muscle is especially large in Galago (in percent mass of the entire hind limb), while the hip region is smaller compared to the more quadrupedal cheirogaleids. Across age groups, the species with the least specialized locomotion as adults, Cheirogaleus medius, shows little or no change in proximal to distal percentage distribution of muscle mass. Galago has a larger percentage mass gain in the thigh. We suggest that muscle mass gain to specific limb segments may be a critical milestone for primates with extremely specialized modes of locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy J. Baker
- Drayer Physical Therapy Institute, Austintown, OH 44515, USA
| | | | - Madeliene Atzeva Stump
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Carver College of Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Matthew B. Kehrer
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA 16057, USA
| | - Colleen Shanafelt
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA 16057, USA
| | | | - Timothy D. Smith
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA 16057, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
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26
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Bezanson M. Life history and locomotion inCebus capucinusandAlouatta palliata. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 140:508-17. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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27
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Young JW. Ontogeny of joint mechanics in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis): functional implications for mammalian limb growth and locomotor development. J Exp Biol 2009; 212:1576-91. [PMID: 19411552 PMCID: PMC2777092 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.025460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Juvenile animals must often compete against adults for common resources, keep pace during group travel and evade common predators, despite reduced body size and an immature musculoskeletal system. Previous morphometric studies of a diverse array of mammals, including jack rabbits, cats and capuchin monkeys, have identified growth-related changes in anatomy, such as negative allometry of limb muscle mechanical advantage, which should theoretically permit young mammals to overcome such ontogenetic limits on performance. However, it is important to evaluate the potential impact of such ;compensatory' growth trajectories within the context of developmental changes in locomotor behavior. I used standard kinematic and kinetic techniques to investigate the ontogenetic scaling of joint postures, substrate reaction forces, joint load arm lengths and external joint moments in an ontogenetic sample of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). Results indicated that young squirrel monkeys were frequently able to limit forelimb and hind limb joint loading via a combination of changes in limb posture and limb force distribution, potentially compensating for limited muscularity at younger ages. These results complement previous morphometric studies and suggest that immature mammals may utilize a combination of behavioral and anatomical mechanisms to mitigate ontogenetic limits on locomotor performance. However, ontogenetic changes in joint posture, not limb length per se, explained most of the variation in load arm lengths and joint loading in growing squirrel monkeys, indicating the importance of incorporating both anatomical and performance measures when studying the ontogeny of limb joint mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse W Young
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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28
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Raichlen DA, Pontzer H, Shapiro LJ, Sockol MD. Understanding hind limb weight support in chimpanzees with implications for the evolution of primate locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 138:395-402. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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29
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Schoonaert K, D'Août K, Aerts P. Morphometrics and inertial properties in the body segments of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). J Anat 2007; 210:518-31. [PMID: 17451529 PMCID: PMC2375742 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00720.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Inertial characteristics and dimensions of the body and body segments form an integral part of a biomechanical analysis of motion. In primate studies, however, segment inertial parameters of non-human hominoids are scarce and often obtained using varying techniques. Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to expand the existing chimpanzee inertial property data set using a non-invasive measuring technique. We also considered age- and sex-related differences within our sample. By means of a geometric model based on Crompton et al. (1996; Am J Phys Anthropol 99, 547-570) we generated inertial properties using external segment length and diameter measurements of 53 anaesthetized chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We report absolute inertial parameters for immature and mature subjects and for males and females separately. Proportional data were computed to allow the comparison between age classes and sex classes. In addition, we calculated whole limb inertial properties and we discuss their potential biomechanical consequences. We found no significant differences between the age classes in the proportional data except for hand and foot measures where juveniles exhibit relatively longer and heavier distal segments than adults. Furthermore, most sex-related differences can be directly attributed to the higher absolute segment masses in male chimpanzees resulting in higher moments of inertia. Additionally, males tend to have longer upper limbs than females. However, regarding proportional data we discuss the general inertial properties of the chimpanzee. The described segment inertial parameters of males and females, and of the two age classes, represent a valuable data set ready for use in a range of biomechanical locomotor models. These models offer great potential for improving our understanding of early hominin locomotor patterns.
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30
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Atzeva M, Demes B, Kirkbride ML, Burrows AM, Smith TD. Comparison of hind limb muscle mass in neonate and adult prosimian primates. J Hum Evol 2007; 52:231-42. [PMID: 17095050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2005] [Revised: 05/31/2006] [Accepted: 08/08/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Little ontogenetic data exist to indicate whether muscular organization of neonates reflects adult locomotion (e.g., leaping) or infant activities like clinging or the initial quadrupedal phase of locomotion that typifies most infant primates. In the present study, five species of primates with contrasting modes of locomotion were examined. Twenty-eight preserved neonatal and adult cadavers were studied by careful dissection of the hip, thigh, and leg muscles. Wet weights were taken of limb muscles after removal, and the muscles were combined into major functional groups (e.g., flexors, extensors) of each limb segment. Results demonstrate that the distribution of muscle mass within the thigh and within the leg are similar between neonates and adults for all species, with major groups varying by 5% or less in all but two age comparisons. Crural indices of the neonates are nearly identical to those of the adults, but leg/thigh muscle mass ratios were higher in the neonates. Species vary greatly in the percentage of adult limb segment muscle mass present in neonates, with Tarsius syrichta having the greatest percentage for all segments and two lemurids showing the least. These results primarily track differences in relative body mass at birth rather than developmental differences. The adaptive distribution of muscle, as discussed previously for adult prosimians, appears to be established at birth. Neonates of leaping species already have much larger quadriceps muscles than quadrupeds. Differences between large- and small-bodied leapers (e.g., pronounced superficial plantarflexor masses in tarsiers and pronounced deep plantarflexor masses in sifakas) also are present in neonates. Ratios of muscle mass over body mass are smaller in all neonates than in their adult counterparts, suggesting that the neonates are relatively poorly muscled, and that muscle mass must increase with positive allometry during growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Atzeva
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA 16057, USA
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31
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Isler K, Payne RC, Günther MM, Thorpe SKS, Li Y, Savage R, Crompton RH. Inertial properties of hominoid limb segments. J Anat 2006; 209:201-18. [PMID: 16879599 PMCID: PMC2100316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00588.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative, accurate data regarding the inertial properties of body segments are of paramount importance when developing musculo-skeletal locomotor models of living animals and, by inference, their ancestors. The limited number of available primate cadavers, and the destructive nature of the post-mortem, result in such data being very rare for primates. This study builds on the work of Crompton et al. (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1996, 99, 547-570) and reports inertial properties of the body segments of gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans and gibbons. Segment mass, centre of mass and the radius of gyration of five ape cadavers were measured using a complex-pendulum technique and compared with the results derived from external measurements of segment lengths and diameters on the same animals. With additional data from external measurements of eight more hominoid cadavers, and published data, intergeneric differences between the inertial properties and the distribution of mass between limb segments are analysed and related to the locomotor habits of the species. We found that segment inertial properties show extensive overlap between ape genera as a result of large interindividual variation. Segment mass distribution also overlaps between apes and humans, with the exception of the shank segment. However, owing to a different distribution of mass between the limb segments, the centre of mass of both the arms and the legs is located more distally in apes than in humans, and the natural pendular period of ape forelimbs is larger than that of the hindlimbs. This suggests that, in contrast to the limbs of cursorial mammals and cercopithecoid primates, hominoid limbs are not optimized for efficiency in quadrupedal walking, but rather reflect a compromise between various locomotor modes. Common chimpanzees may have secondarily evolved a more efficient quadrupedal gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Isler
- University of Zürich-Irchel, Zürich, Switzerland.
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32
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Shapiro LJ, Raichlen DA. Limb proportions and the ontogeny of quadrupedal walking in infant baboons (
Papio cynocephalus
). J Zool (1987) 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00082.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L. J. Shapiro
- Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - D. A. Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
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33
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Raichlen DA. Effects of limb mass distribution on mechanical power outputs during quadrupedalism. J Exp Biol 2006; 209:633-44. [PMID: 16449558 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARYMany researchers have suggested that cursorial mammals concentrate limb muscle mass proximally to reduce energy costs during locomotion. Although supported by experiments where mass is added to an individual's limbs, mammals with naturally occurring distally heavy limbs such as primates have similar energy costs compared with other mammals. This study presents a new hypothesis to explain how animals with distally heavy limbs maintain low energy costs. Since distal mass should increase energy costs due to higher amounts of muscular power outputs, this hypothesis is based on the divergent effects of stride frequency on internal and external power outputs (the power output to move the limbs and the body center of mass, respectively). The use of low stride frequencies reduces limb velocities and therefore decreases internal power, while associated long strides increase the vertical displacement of the body center of mass and therefore increase external power. Total power (the sum of internal and external power) may therefore not differ among mammals with different limb mass distributions. To test this hypothesis, I examined a sample of infant baboons (Papio cynocephalus) during ontogeny and compared them with more cursorial mammals. Limb mass distribution changes with age (from distal to more proximally concentrated) in baboons, and the infants used shorter strides and higher stride frequencies when limb mass was most proximally concentrated. Compared with non-primates who have more proximally concentrated limb mass, the infants used longer strides and lower stride frequencies. Relatively low internal power was associated with low stride frequencies in both the intra- and inter-specific samples. However, only in the inter-specific comparison were relatively long strides associated with high external power outputs. In both the intra-specific and the inter-specific samples, total power did not differ between groups who differed in limb mass distribution. The results of this study suggest that a trade-off mechanism is available to quadrupeds with distally heavy limbs allowing them to maintain similar total power outputs (and likely similar energy costs) compared with mammals with more proximally concentrated limb mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Raichlen
- Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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34
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Lawler RR. Sifaka positional behavior: Ontogenetic and quantitative genetic approaches. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2006; 131:261-71. [PMID: 16596593 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.20430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In many primate species, hands and feet are large relative to neonatal body weight, and they subsequently exhibit negative allometric growth during ontogeny. Here, data are presented showing that this pattern holds for a wild population of lemur, Verreaux's sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi). Using morphometric data collected on this population, it is shown that younger animals possess relatively large hands and feet. This ontogenetic pattern suggests a simple behavioral test: do juvenile animals with their larger, almost adult-sized hands and feet locomote on similarly sized substrates as adult animals? Using locomotor bout sampling, this question was tested by collecting positional behavior data on this population. Results from this test find no differences in locomotor behaviors or substrate use between yearlings and adult animals. To place these results in a broader evolutionary context, heritabilities and selection gradients of hands, feet, and other limb elements for animals in this population were estimated. Among limb elements, heritabilities range from 0.16-0.44, with the foot having the lowest value. Positive directional selection acts most strongly on the foot (directional selection gradient = 0.119). The low heritability and positive selection coefficient indicate that selection has acted, and continues to act, on foot size in young animals. These results are interpreted within a functional context with respect to the development of locomotor coordination: larger feet enable young animals to use "adult-sized" substrates when they move through their habitat. It is suggested that the widespread pattern of negative allometry of the extremities in sifaka and other primates is maintained by selection, and does not simply reflect a primitive developmental pathway that has no adaptive basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard R Lawler
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, Massachusetts 02215, USA.
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