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Bavari S, Mirkalantari S, Masjedian Jazi F, Darban-Sarokhalil D, Golnari Marani B. Risk assessment and quantitative measurement along with monitoring of Legionella in hospital water sources. New Microbes New Infect 2022; 45:100948. [PMID: 35399198 PMCID: PMC8984627 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2021.100948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 08/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Legionella spp. as a causative agent of Legionnaires' disease (LD) and an opportunistic pathogen creates a public health problem. Isolation and quantification of this bacteria from clinic water sources are essential for hazard appraisal and sickness avoidance. This study aimed at risk assessment and quantitative measurement along with Legionella monitoring in educational hospital water sources in Tehran, Iran. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 1 year. The conventional culture method was used in this study to isolate Legionella from water samples. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique was used to confirm the identity of the isolates and ensure that they were all Legionella. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to determine the count of bacteria, and HeLa cell culture was used to determine the invasion of isolates. A total of 100 water samples were collected and inoculated on GVPC (glycine, vancomycin, polymyxin, and cycloheximide) agar; 12 (12%) and 42 (42%) cases were culture and PCR positive, respectively. Percentage of Legionella presence in PCR-positive samples by the qPCR method in <103 GU/L, in about 103 and lower than 104 GU/L, and in 104 GU/L was 40.47 (17 cases), 4.76% (two cases), and 54.76% (23 cases), respectively. Invasion analysis revealed that five and four isolates had invaded HeLa cells more than twice and equally, respectively, and the others had a lower invasion than the reference strain. The findings revealed that the spread of LD in hospitals was linked to the water system. Given the importance of nosocomial infections in the medical community, establishing a hospital water monitoring system is the most effective way to control these infections, particularly Legionella infections.
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Surveillance of hospital water systems to help predict the risk of nosocomial legionellosis-Consider other factors. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2021; 43:1080-1081. [PMID: 34121646 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2021.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Mao K, Zhang H, Pan Y, Yang Z. Biosensors for wastewater-based epidemiology for monitoring public health. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 191:116787. [PMID: 33421639 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Public health is attracting increasing attention due to the current global pandemic, and wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring of public health by analysis of a variety of biomarkers (e.g., chemicals and pathogens) in wastewater. Rapid development of WBE requires rapid and on-site analytical tools for monitoring of sewage biomarkers to provide immediate decision and intervention. Biosensors have been demonstrated to be highly sensitive and selective tools for the analysis of sewage biomarkers due to their fast response, ease-to-use, low cost and the potential for field-testing. This paper presents biosensors as effective tools for wastewater analysis of potential biomarkers and monitoring of public health via WBE. In particular, we discuss the use of sewage sensors for rapid detection of a range of targets, including rapid monitoring of community-wide illicit drug consumption and pathogens for early warning of infectious diseases outbreaks. Finally, we provide a perspective on the future use of the biosensor technology for WBE to enable rapid on-site monitoring of sewage, which will provide nearly real-time data for public health assessment and effective intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Mao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Geochemistry, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China.
| | - Yuwei Pan
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, United Kingdom
| | - Zhugen Yang
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, United Kingdom.
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Bertolino G, Marras L, Sanna C, Carrucciu G, Schintu M, Coroneo V. Ten-Year Retrospective Analysis of Legionella Diffusion in Hospital Water Systems and Its Serogroup Seasonal Variation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1282:93-103. [PMID: 32030638 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2020_484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Legionella spp. are ubiquitous aquatic organisms found to be associated with community-acquired pneumoniae (CAP) as well as hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP). Direct inhalation of aerosols from environmental colonisation is typically the source of infection. The aim of this study was to determine the level of colonisation in hospital water supply systems in order to assess the criticality of the water distribution network and strengthen preventive measures. METHODS From 2009 to 2018, 769 water samples were collected and then analysed according to the standard methods indicated in ISO11731-2:2004 and ISO11731:2017 for Legionella detection. RESULTS The samples were positive in 37.1% cases (n. 285) and negative in 62.9% cases (n. 484). The threshold of 10,000 CFU/L was exceeded in 15.1% cases and led to decolonisation as indicated by Italian and European ECDC guidelines. In the autumn-winter period SG1 showed a positivity of 41.2% (n. 40) with a decrease in the spring-summer period with 9.6% (n. 18) of positivity. In contrast, SG2-15 showed a positivity of 30.9% (n. 30) in autumn-winter, which tends to increase to 56.9% (n. 112) in spring-summer (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Surprisingly, besides showing a seasonal trend already described previously in the literature, the positivity of our sample was not balanced even for serogroups in the two periods. This could be due to genetic differences and ecological niches to be further investigated that could also have links with the greater pathogenicity of SG1. Environmental microbiological surveillance and risk assessment should be performed more frequently and disinfection must be carried out, especially in health facilities where people are more susceptible to infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Bertolino
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy. .,Pharmaceutical Department, ATS Sardegna, ASSL Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Luisa Marras
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Clara Sanna
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Gerolamo Carrucciu
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Marco Schintu
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Valentina Coroneo
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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Laganà P, Facciolà A, Palermo R, Delia S. Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis within an Italian University Hospital-Results of 15 Years of Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E1103. [PMID: 30925660 PMCID: PMC6480113 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16071103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Legionnaires' disease is normally acquired by inhalation of legionellae from a contaminated environmental source. Water systems of large and old buildings, such as hospitals, can be contaminated with legionellae and therefore represent a potential risk for the hospital population. In this study, we demonstrated the constant presence of Legionella in water samples from the water system of a large university hospital in Messina (Sicily, Italy) consisting of 11 separate pavilions during a period of 15 years (2004⁻2018). In total, 1346 hot water samples were collected between January 2004 and December 2018. During this period, to recover Legionella spp. from water samples, the standard procedures reported by the 2000 Italian Guidelines were adopted; from May 2015 to 2018 Italian Guidelines revised in 2015 (ISS, 2015) were used. Most water samples (72%) were positive to L. pneumophila serogroups 2⁻14, whereas L. pneumophila serogroup 1 accounted for 18% and non-Legionellapneumophila spp. Accounted for 15%. Most of the positive samples were found in the buildings where the following critical wards are situated: (Intensive Care Unit) ICU, Neurosurgery, Surgeries, Pneumology, and Neonatal Intensive Unit Care. This study highlights the importance of the continuous monitoring of hospital water samples to prevent the potential risk of nosocomial legionellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasqualina Laganà
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Branch of Messina, Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Torre Biologica 3p, AOU 'G. Martino, Via C. Valeria, s.n.c., 98125 Messina, Italy.
| | - Alessio Facciolà
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy.
| | - Roberta Palermo
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy.
| | - Santi Delia
- Regional Reference Laboratory of Clinical and Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis, Branch of Messina, Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphofunctional Imaging, University of Messina, Torre Biologica 3p, AOU 'G. Martino, Via C. Valeria, s.n.c., 98125 Messina, Italy.
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Kyritsi MA, Mouchtouri VA, Katsiafliaka A, Kolokythopoulou F, Plakokefalos E, Nakoulas V, Rachiotis G, Hadjichristodoulou C. Clusters of Healthcare-Associated Legionnaires' Disease in Two Hospitals of Central Greece. Case Rep Infect Dis 2018; 2018:2570758. [PMID: 30186646 PMCID: PMC6114232 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2570758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Healthcare-associated Legionnaires' disease often leads to fatal respiratory tract infection among hospitalized patients. In this report, three cases of Legionnaires' disease among patients in two different hospitals (Hospital A and Hospital B) were investigated. After conducting an epidemiologic and environmental investigation, the water distribution systems (WDSs) were identified as the possible source of infection, as Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 (Lp1) was isolated from both clinical and environmental samples. Patients received aerosol therapy with nebulizers during their hospitalization. Based on the results of the investigation, the hospitals' infection control committees reviewed their policies for Legionnaires' disease prevention and implemented control measures focusing on using sterile fluids for aerosol treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Kyritsi
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
- Peripheral Public Health Laboratory of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Varvara A. Mouchtouri
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
- Peripheral Public Health Laboratory of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Anna Katsiafliaka
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
- Peripheral Public Health Laboratory of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | | | - Elias Plakokefalos
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Vasileios Nakoulas
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - George Rachiotis
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Christos Hadjichristodoulou
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
- Peripheral Public Health Laboratory of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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Choi PM, Tscharke BJ, Donner E, O'Brien JW, Grant SC, Kaserzon SL, Mackie R, O'Malley E, Crosbie ND, Thomas KV, Mueller JF. Wastewater-based epidemiology biomarkers: Past, present and future. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Whiley H. Legionella Risk Management and Control in Potable Water Systems: Argument for the Abolishment of Routine Testing. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2016; 14:E12. [PMID: 28029126 PMCID: PMC5295263 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14010012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Legionella is an opportunistic pathogen of public health significance. One of the main sources of Legionella is potable water systems. As a consequence of aging populations there is an increasing demographic considered at high risk for Legionellosis and, as such, a review of the guidelines is required. Worldwide, Legionella has been detected from many potable water sources, suggesting it is ubiquitous in this environment. Previous studies have identified the limitations of the current standard method for Legionella detection and the high possibility of it returning both false negative and false positive results. There is also huge variability in Legionella test results for the same water sample when conducted at different laboratories. However, many guidelines still recommend the testing of water systems. This commentary argues for the removal of routine Legionella monitoring from all water distribution guidelines. This procedure is financially consuming and false negatives may result in managers being over-confident with a system or a control mechanism. Instead, the presence of the pathogen should be assumed and focus spent on managing appropriate control measures and protecting high-risk population groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet Whiley
- Health and the Environment, School of the Environment, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide 5001, Australia.
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Legionella and risk management in hospitals—A bibliographic research methodology for people responsible for built environment and facility management. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 219:890-897. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Lucardie A, Rogiers P, Floré KMJ. A case of nosocomial Legionnaires' disease: The importance of early diagnosis, adequate prevention and eradication measures. Acta Clin Belg 2016; 71:323-326. [PMID: 27075787 DOI: 10.1080/17843286.2015.1105609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This case-report describes a patient with confirmed nosocomial Legionnaires' disease, a diagnosis which should be suspected when pneumonia does not respond to empiric therapy with beta-lactam antibiotics, or develops in the presence of certain risk factors. Culture is currently the golden standard for diagnosis, although the use of more modern techniques, such as a combination of urinary antigen testing and polymerase chain reaction, are on the rise. Specific detection and eradication methods are discussed.
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Kruse EB, Wehner A, Wisplinghoff H. Prevalence and distribution of Legionella spp in potable water systems in Germany, risk factors associated with contamination, and effectiveness of thermal disinfection. Am J Infect Control 2016; 44:470-4. [PMID: 26775932 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2015.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Worldwide, Legionella spp are a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia. Potable water systems are a main reservoir; however, exposure in the community is unknown. METHODS Water samples from 718 buildings in Germany were collected. Possible risk factors were prospectively recorded. All samples were tested for Legionella spp using cultural microbiologic methods. Samples were assigned to 1 of 5 levels of contamination. Statistical analysis was performed to determine the influence of risk factors for contamination and, in a subgroup of buildings, for unsuccessful thermal disinfection. RESULTS In total, 4,482 water samples from 718 different water supply systems were analyzed. In 233 buildings (32.7%), Legionella spp were identified, 148 (63.5%) of which had a medium or higher level of contamination. The most common species was Legionella pneumophila (94%). Contamination was strongly associated with temperature in the circulation, but not with the size of the building, time of the year, or transport time to the laboratory. Thermal disinfection was successful in fewer than half of the buildings. CONCLUSIONS There is relevant exposure to Legionella spp in the community. Water systems are not always up to current technical standards. Although microbiological risk assessment remains a challenge, there is a case for monitoring for Legionella spp outside of hospitals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hilmar Wisplinghoff
- Wisplinghoff Laboratories, Cologne, Germany; Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology, and Hygiene, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Omiccioli E, Schiavano GF, Ceppetelli V, Amagliani G, Magnani M, Brandi G. Validation according to ISO/TS 12869:2012 of a molecular method for the isolation and quantification of Legionella spp. in water. Mol Cell Probes 2015; 29:86-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2014.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Revised: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Stout JE, Muder RR, Mietzner S, Wagener MM, Perri MB, DeRoos K, Goodrich D, Arnold W, Williamson T, Ruark O, Treadway C, Eckstein EC, Marshall D, Rafferty ME, Sarro K, Page J, Jenkins R, Oda G, Shimoda KJ, Zervos MJ, Bittner M, Camhi SL, Panwalker AP, Donskey CJ, Nguyen MH, Holodniy M, Yu VL. Role of Environmental Surveillance in Determining the Risk of Hospital-Acquired Legionellosis: A National Surveillance Study With Clinical Correlations. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 28:818-24. [PMID: 17564984 DOI: 10.1086/518754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Accepted: 12/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Objective.Hospital-acquired Legionella pneumonia has a fatality rate of 28%, and the source is the water distribution system. Two prevention strategies have been advocated. One approach to prevention is clinical surveillance for disease without routine environmental monitoring. Another approach recommends environmental monitoring even in the absence of known cases of Legionella pneumonia. We determined the Legionella colonization status of water systems in hospitals to establish whether the results of environmental surveillance correlated with discovery of disease. None of these hospitals had previously experienced endemic hospital-acquired Legionella pneumonia.Design.Cohort study.Setting.Twenty US hospitals in 13 states.Interventions.Hospitals performed clinical and environmental surveillance for Legionella from 2000 through 2002. All specimens were shipped to the Special Pathogens Laboratory at the Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Medical Center.Results.Legionella pneumophila and Legionella anisa were isolated from 14 (70%) of 20 hospital water systems. Of 676 environmental samples, 198 (29%) were positive for Legionella species. High-level colonization of the water system (30% or more of the distal outlets were positive for L. pneumophila) was demonstrated for 6 (43%) of the 14 hospitals with positive findings. L. pneumophila serogroup 1 was detected in 5 of these 6 hospitals, whereas 1 hospital was colonized with L. pneumophila serogroup 5. A total of 633 patients were evaluated for Legionella pneumonia from 12 (60%) of the 20 hospitals: 377 by urinary antigen testing and 577 by sputum culture. Hospital-acquired Legionella pneumonia was identified in 4 hospitals, all of which were hospitals with L. pneumophila serogroup 1 found in 30% or more of the distal outlets. No cases of disease due to other serogroups or species (L. anisa) were identified.Conclusion.Environmental monitoring followed by clinical surveillance was successful in uncovering previously unrecognized cases of hospital-acquired Legionella pneumonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet E Stout
- VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Scaturro M, Dell'Eva I, Helfer F, Ricci ML. Persistence of the Same Strain ofLegionella pneumophilain the Water System of an Italian Hospital for 15 Years. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 28:1089-92. [DOI: 10.1086/519869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 03/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In 2004, an outbreak of legionnaires disease occurred in a hospital in northern Italy with a water system that had been disinfected multiple times since 1990 and equipped with a continuous disinfecting system. Molecular typing linked the outbreak to contamination of the hospital water system and demonstrated the persistence of a predominant strain ofLegionella pneumophilafor 15 years.
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Orsi GB, Vitali M, Marinelli L, Ciorba V, Tufi D, Del Cimmuto A, Ursillo P, Fabiani M, De Santis S, Protano C, Marzuillo C, De Giusti M. Legionella control in the water system of antiquated hospital buildings by shock and continuous hyperchlorination: 5 years experience. BMC Infect Dis 2014; 14:394. [PMID: 25027499 PMCID: PMC4223580 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background To control the presence of Legionella in an old hospital water system, an integrated strategy of water disinfection-filtration was implemented in the university hospital Umberto I in Rome. Methods Due to antiquated buildings, hospital water system design and hospital extension (38 buildings), shock hyperchlorination (sodium hypochlorite, 20–50 ppm of free chlorine at distal points for 1–2 h) followed by continuous hyperchlorination (0.5-1.0 mg/L at distal points) were adopted, and microbiological and chemical monitoring of the water supply was carried out in the university hospital (December 2006-December 2011). Results Overall, 1308 samples of cold <20°C (44.5%), mixed ≥20°C ≤ 45°C (37.7%) and hot >45°C (17.8%) water were collected, determining residual free chlorine (0.43 ± 0.44 mg/L), pH (7.43 ± 0.29) and trihalomethanes (8.97 ± 18.56 μg/L). Legionella was isolated in 102 (9.8%) out of 1.041 water samples without filters (L. pneumophila sg 1 17.6%, L. pneumophila sg 2–14 28.4%, L. non pneumophila 53.9%), and in none of the 267 samples with filters. Legionella was recovered in 23 buildings out of 38 and 29 samples (28.4%) exceeded 103 cfu/L. When considering the disinfection treatment Legionella was isolated: before shock hyperchlorination (21.1%), 15 days after shock hyperchlorination (7.8%), 30 days after shock hyperchlorination (3.5%), during continuous hyperchlorination (5.5%) and without continuous hyperchlorination (27.3%). Continuous hyperchlorination following the shock treatment achieved >70% reduction of positive samples, whereas no continuous hyperchlorination after shock treatment was more frequently associated to Legionella isolation (OR 6.41; 95% CI 3.10–13.26; p <0.001). Independent risk factors for Legionella isolation were: residual free chlorine <0.5 mg/L (OR 13.0; 95% CI 1.37 – 123.2; p <0.03), water T° ≥20°C ≤ 45°C (OR 12.0; 95% CI 1.28 – 111.48; p <0.03) and no continuous hyperchlorination after shock treatment (OR 10.3; 95% CI 1.06 – 100.05; p <0.05). Conclusions Shock and continuous hyperchlorination achieved significant Legionella reduction, but effective chlorine levels (>0.5 < 1.0 mg/L) deteriorated water quality (organoleptic and chemical). However, shock and continuous hyperchlorination remains a valid-term option in old buildings with no water system rational design, managing problems due to hospital extension and absence of a proper hot water recirculation system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Battista Orsi
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evonne T Curran
- NHS National Services Scotland, Health Protection Scotland, Glasgow
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Lucas CE, Taylor TH, Fields BS. Accuracy and precision of Legionella isolation by US laboratories in the ELITE program pilot study. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:4428-4436. [PMID: 21726887 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A pilot study for the Environmental Legionella Isolation Techniques Evaluation (ELITE) Program, a proficiency testing scheme for US laboratories that culture Legionella from environmental samples, was conducted September 1, 2008 through March 31, 2009. Participants (n=20) processed panels consisting of six sample types: pure and mixed positive, pure and mixed negative, pure and mixed variable. The majority (93%) of all samples (n=286) were correctly characterized, with 88.5% of samples positive for Legionella and 100% of negative samples identified correctly. Variable samples were incorrectly identified as negative in 36.9% of reports. For all samples reported positive (n=128), participants underestimated the cfu/ml by a mean of 1.25 logs with standard deviation of 0.78 logs, standard error of 0.07 logs, and a range of 3.57 logs compared to the CDC re-test value. Centering results around the interlaboratory mean yielded a standard deviation of 0.65 logs, standard error of 0.06 logs, and a range of 3.22 logs. Sampling protocol, treatment regimen, culture procedure, and laboratory experience did not significantly affect the accuracy or precision of reported concentrations. Qualitative and quantitative results from the ELITE pilot study were similar to reports from a corresponding proficiency testing scheme available in the European Union, indicating these results are probably valid for most environmental laboratories worldwide. The large enumeration error observed suggests that the need for remediation of a water system should not be determined solely by the concentration of Legionella observed in a sample since that value is likely to underestimate the true level of contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claressa E Lucas
- Division of Bacterial Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE MS G03, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA.
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[Requirements for hygiene in the medical care of immunocompromised patients. Recommendations from the Committee for Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention at the Robert Koch Institute (RKI)]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2010; 53:357-88. [PMID: 20300719 PMCID: PMC7095954 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-010-1028-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Rivera J, Granizo J, Aguilar L, Giménez M, Aguiar J, Mozota J, Vos-Arenilla A, Prieto J. Analysis of the impact of a new electro-chemical activation system for potable water disinfection on the Legionella pneumophila isolation rate in a Spanish hospital. J Infect Prev 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/1757177410362497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In a field study comparing isolation rates pre- and post-installation of an electro-chemical activation system for Legionella pneumophila disinfection of potable hot water in a Spanish hospital, a total of 250 tap samples pre-installation and 113 post-installation were collected. Chlorine levels were higher ( p < 0.001) post-installation (0.55 ± 0.41 vs. 1.19 ± 0.44 ppm). Of 38.0% (138/363) samples positive for L. pneumophila, 111 (80.4%) were serogroups 2—14. Post-installation, the isolation rate was lower (46.8% vs. 18.6%; p < 0.001, odds ratio (OR) 0.26, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.15—0.44) due to significant ( p < 0.001; OR 0.25, 95% CI 0.14—0.45) reduction in L. pneumophila serogroups 2—14 from 38.4% to 13.3%. Post-installation, isolation rates were lower in spring (44.4% vs. 0.0%; p < 0.001), summer (80.0% vs. 25.0%; p = 0.003) and autumn (72.0% vs. 28.9%; p = 0.018), but not in winter (18.5% vs. 11.8%; p = 0.688). The seasonal wave constructed with pre-installation data significantly decreased post-installation by decreasing isolation rates in summer and autumn to rates similar to those found in winter pre-installation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Rivera
- Preventive Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain, Bioseguridad Ambiental SL, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - L. Aguilar
- Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Avda. Complutense s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain,
| | - M.J. Giménez
- Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Avda. Complutense s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | | | - J. Mozota
- Preventive Medicine Department, Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla, Santander, Spain
| | - A. Vos-Arenilla
- Nursery Department, Nursery School, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Prieto
- Microbiology Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Avda. Complutense s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Hoenich NA. Disinfection of the hospital water supply: a hidden risk to dialysis patients. Crit Care 2009; 13:1007. [PMID: 20053299 PMCID: PMC2811925 DOI: 10.1186/cc8158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Water suitable for drinking is unsuited for use in the preparation of haemodialysis fluid and undergoes additional treatment. The primary component of the additional treatment is reverse osmosis, which does not remove low-molecular-weight contaminants, and the water treatment system must contain carbon beds or filters to ensure effective removal of such contaminants. The recent article by Bek and colleagues highlights an unrecognised issue with respect to chemicals that may be added to the water within hospitals to ensure that the distribution network is free of pathogens (for example, Legionella, pseudomonas, and mycobacteria) and underlines the need for personnel responsible for dialysis in a renal or intensive care setting to be aware of any potential effects that disinfection of the hospital water treatment system may have on the product water used in the preparation of dialysis fluid. Such awareness requires communication and the sharing of information between clinical and facilities staff.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas A Hoenich
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK.
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Rivera JM, Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Giménez MJ, Aguiar JM, Prieto J. Is there a relationship between monthly rainfall and the isolation of Legionella in potable water systems in Spanish healthcare facilities? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009; 30:306-8. [PMID: 19215199 DOI: 10.1086/595981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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23
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Legionella antibodies in a Danish hospital staff with known occupational exposure. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2009; 2009:812829. [PMID: 20041020 PMCID: PMC2778453 DOI: 10.1155/2009/812829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Accepted: 04/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although legionnaires' disease frequently is acquired in health care institutions, little is known about the occupational risk of Legionella infection among health care workers. The aim of the present cross-sectional study was to analyse antibody levels among exposed hospital workers and to determine the correlation between antibodies to Legionella and self-reported symptoms. The study included 258 hospital employees and a reference group of 708 healthy blood donors. Hospital workers had a higher prevalence of Legionella antibody titres (>/=1 : 128) than blood donors (odds ratio 3.4; 95% CI 2.4-4.8). Antibody levels were not higher among staff members at risk of frequent aerosol exposure than among less exposed employees. There was no consistent association between a history of influenza-like symptom complex and the presence of antibodies. The results indicate that hospital workers have a higher risk of Legionella infections than the general population. However, since no excess morbidity was associated with seropositivity, most Legionella infections may be asymptomatic.
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Curtis LT. Prevention of hospital-acquired infections: review of non-pharmacological interventions. J Hosp Infect 2008; 69:204-19. [PMID: 18513830 PMCID: PMC7172535 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2008.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2008] [Accepted: 03/20/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections (HAIs) increase morbidity, mortality and medical costs. In the USA alone, nosocomial infections cause about 1.7 million infections and 99 000 deaths per year. HAIs are spread by numerous routes including surfaces (especially hands), air, water, intravenous routes, oral routes and through surgery. Interventions such as proper hand and surface cleaning, better nutrition, sufficient numbers of nurses, better ventilator management, use of coated urinary and central venous catheters and use of high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters have all been associated with significantly lower nosocomial infection rates. Multiple infection control techniques and strategies simultaneously ('bundling') may offer the best opportunity to reduce the morbidity and mortality toll of HAIs. Most of these infection control strategies will more than pay for themselves by saving the medical costs associated with nosocomial infections. Many non-pharmacological interventions to prevent many HAIs will also reduce the need for long or multiple-drug antibiotic courses for patients. Lower antibiotic drug usage will reduce risk of antibiotic-resistant organisms and should improve efficacy of antibiotics given to patients who do acquire infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- L T Curtis
- Norwegian American Hospital, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Engelhart S, Pleischl S, Lück C, Marklein G, Fischnaller E, Martin S, Simon A, Exner M. Hospital-acquired legionellosis originating from a cooling tower during a period of thermal inversion. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2008; 211:235-40. [PMID: 17870669 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2007.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2007] [Revised: 04/30/2007] [Accepted: 07/15/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A case of hospital-acquired legionellosis occurred in a 75-year-old male patient who underwent surgery due to malignant melanoma. Legionellosis was proven by culture of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1 from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Being a chronic smoker the patient used to visit the sickroom balcony that was located about 90 m to the west of a hospital cooling tower. Routine cooling tower water samples drawn during the presumed incubation period revealed 1.0x10(4) CFU/100 ml (L. pneumophila serogroup 1). One of three isolates from the cooling tower water matched the patient's isolate by monoclonal antibody (mab)- and genotyping (sequence-based typing). Horizontal transport of cooling tower aerosols probably was favoured by meteorological conditions with thermal inversion. The case report stresses the importance of routine maintenance and microbiological control of hospital cooling towers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Engelhart
- Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, 53105 Bonn, Germany.
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26
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Guidelines for the management of hospital-acquired pneumonia in the UK: report of the working party on hospital-acquired pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62:5-34. [PMID: 18445577 PMCID: PMC7110234 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkn162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
These evidence-based guidelines have been produced after a systematic literature review of a range of issues involving prevention, diagnosis and treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP). Prevention is structured into sections addressing general issues, equipment, patient procedures and the environment, whereas in treatment, the structure addresses the use of antimicrobials in prevention and treatment, adjunctive therapies and the application of clinical protocols. The sections dealing with diagnosis are presented against the clinical, radiological and microbiological diagnosis of HAP. Recommendations are also made upon the role of invasive sampling and quantitative microbiology of respiratory secretions in directing antibiotic therapy in HAP/ventilator-associated pneumonia.
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Qasem JA, Mustafa AS, Khan ZU. Legionella in clinical specimens and hospital water supply facilities: molecular detection and genotyping of the isolates. Med Princ Pract 2008; 17:49-55. [PMID: 18059101 DOI: 10.1159/000109590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate genus- and species-specific polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) for the detection of the genus Legionella and the species Legionella pneumophila in clinical specimens and hospital water supplies, and to establish a simple and reproducible random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR technique for genotyping of Legionella. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 70 respiratory tract specimens(bronchoalveolar lavage: n = 46; endotracheal secretions: n = 9; sputum: n = 15) from patients with atypical pneumonia, and 283 environmental samples (water: 20; swabs: 263) collected from water storage and supply facilities of the Mubarak Al-Kabeer Hospital, Kuwait, were tested by culture and genus-specific PCR for the detection of Legionella. The L. pneumophila isolates were subsequently typed by serology and RAPD-PCR using serotype-specific sera and arbitrary primers, respectively. RESULTS Of the 70 clinical samples, culture yielded 2 (2.9%) whereas genus-specific PCR detected Legionella in 20 (28.6%) samples. The 2 culture-positive specimens were also positive for L.-pneumophila-specific PCR. Testing of swab and water samples by culture and genus-specific PCR yielded 61 (21.6%) and 67 (23.7%) positive samples, respectively. All of the 61 culture-positive samples were also positive by genus-specific PCR and 45 of them were positive for L.-pneumophila-specific PCR. Serological typing of 43 L. pneumophila isolates showed that 8 of these belonged to serotype 1 and 35 to serotype 3; however, RAPD-PCR analyses demonstrated polymorphisms among the isolates of both serotypes. CONCLUSION A higher association between PCR and culture was observed for the environmental samples than for the clinical samples. The application of genus- and species-specific PCRs and RAPD is useful in the detection and typing of Legionella in clinical and environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Qasem
- Department of Applied Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, The Public Authority for Applied Education and Training, Kuwait University, Kuwait.
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28
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Rivera JM, Aguilar L, Granizo J, Vos-Arenilla A, Giménez MJ, Aguiar JM, Prieto J. Isolation of Legionella species/serogroups from water cooling systems compared with potable water systems in Spanish healthcare facilities. J Hosp Infect 2007; 67:360-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2007.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Accepted: 07/26/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Diederen BMW. Legionella spp. and Legionnaires' disease. J Infect 2007; 56:1-12. [PMID: 17980914 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2007.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2007] [Revised: 09/18/2007] [Accepted: 09/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Infection with Legionella spp. is an important cause of community- and hospital-acquired pneumonia, occurring both sporadically and in outbreaks. Infection with Legionella spp. ranks among the three most common causes of severe pneumonia in the community setting, and is isolated in 1-40% of cases of hospital-acquired pneumonia. There are no clinical features unique to Legionnaires' disease. Macrolides and fluoroquinolones are the most widely used drugs in treatment. The availability of a good diagnostic repertoire, suitable for accurately diagnosing LD, constitutes the basis for the early recognition and treatment of the individual patient as well as for effective measures for prevention and control. This review summarizes the available information regarding the microbiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of LD, with an emphasis on the laboratory diagnosis of infection with Legionella spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M W Diederen
- Regional Laboratory of Public Health Haarlem, Boerhaavelaan 26, 2035 RC Haarlem, The Netherlands.
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30
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Fujimura S, Oka T, Tooi O, Meguro M, Chiba M, Kawamura M, Maki F, Takeda H, Watanabe A. Detection of Legionella pneumophila serogroup 7 strain from bathwater samples in a Japanese hospital. J Infect Chemother 2006; 12:105-8. [PMID: 16648951 DOI: 10.1007/s10156-005-0428-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2005] [Accepted: 01/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Hospital-acquired legionellosis is one of the serious problems in nosocomial infection. For risk assessment of nosocomial Legionella infection, we surveyed samples from bathrooms for public use in three hospitals and two nursing homes to determine whether Legionella pneumophila was present. A total of 70 hot bathwater samples and samples wiped from bathtubs were collected at 1-h intervals. Fifteen shower-water and 15 inner-head samples were obtained at the start of a bath. Water samples were cultured using the Legionella spp. selective medium, and discrimination between L. pneumophila and other Legionella spp. was performed by PCR analysis. L. pneumophila serogroup 7 was detected in 1 bathwater and 1 wiped sample, both of which were collected 1 h after daily use from the same bathtub in a hospital. However, L. pneumophila SG7 was not detected in any other samples. Furthermore, the concentrations of free residual chlorine in most bath- and shower-water samples were lower than 0.1 mg/l. These results suggest that L. pneumophila has become a potential pathogen for nosocomial infections in public-type hospital baths. From the point of view of an infection-control program, it might be advisable to hold the concentration of free residual chlorine at 0.2-0.4 mg/l, which is generally required for public baths in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Fujimura
- Department of Microbiology, Miyagi University, 1 Gakuen, Taiwa-cho, Miyagi 981-3298, Japan.
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Montagna MT, Napoli C, Tatò D, Spilotros G, Barbuti G, Barbuti S. Clinical–Environmental Surveillance of Legionellosis: An Experience in Southern Italy. Eur J Epidemiol 2006; 21:325-31. [PMID: 16685585 DOI: 10.1007/s10654-006-0009-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/01/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In Italy, although the number of cases of legionellosis notified to the health authorities has significantly increased in recent years, the incidence is still believed to be underestimated. To verify the true frequency and identify the sources of infection, an active clinical-environmental surveillance program was instituted in three hospital facilities in Southern Italy. Between January 2001 and March 2005, a total of 1000 patients admitted to the three hospitals with a diagnosis of pneumonia were enrolled. The urinary antigen and anti-Legionella antibody titre were assayed in each subject, and direct searches for the microorganism were made in biological specimens. Legionellosis was found to be present in 5.9% of the patients. For each of the cases of legionellosis, microbiological surveys were made of the water supply in the public and/or private facilities involved. Overall, 197 water samples of hospital origin and 218 of community origin were analysed: Legionella spp was isolated in 44.2 and 36.7% of the cases, respectively. Comparison of our data with those of the routine surveillance system for the same area (only 7 cases during the period 1997-2000), showed that the frequency of legionellosis is grossly underestimated in Southern Italy. It is therefore necessary to set up more rigorous controls in both hospital and community facilities, so that timely preventive measures can be taken to avoid any further spread of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Montagna
- Department of Internal Medicine and Public Health - Hygiene Section, University of Bari, P. zza G. Cesare, 1170124, Bari, Italy.
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van der Mee-Marquet N, Domelier AS, Arnault L, Bloc D, Laudat P, Hartemann P, Quentin R. Legionella anisa, a possible indicator of water contamination by Legionella pneumophila. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 44:56-9. [PMID: 16390948 PMCID: PMC1351956 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.44.1.56-59.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Legionella anisa is one of the most frequent species of Legionella other than Legionella pneumophila in the environment and may be hospital acquired in rare cases. We found that L. anisa may mask water contamination by L. pneumophila, suggesting that there is a risk of L. pneumophila infection in immunocompromised patients if water is found to be contaminated with Legionella species other than L. pneumophila.
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