Risk factors and recommendations for rate stratification for surveillance of neonatal healthcare-associated bloodstream infection

Late-onset sepsis and mortality among neonates in a Brazilian Intensive Care Unit: a cohort study and survival analysis

A cohort study was performed from January 2014 to December 2016 in a Brazilian neonatal intensive care unit, including neonates with high risk for infection and death. We estimated bloodstream infection (BSI) incidence and conducted a survival analysis, considering the time to death and to the first episode of BSI as outcomes, comparing very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates with the remaining neonates. An extended Cox model was performed and the hazard ratio (HR) was calculated for different time periods. The study had 1560 neonates included, the incidence and the incidence density of BSI was 22% and 18.6 per 1000 central venous catheter-days, respectively. Considering VLBW neonates as the reference group, the HR for time to death was 4.06 (95% CI 2.75–6.00, P < 0.01) from day 0 to 60 and for time to the first episode of BSI was 1.76 (95% CI 1.31–2.36, P < 0.01) from day 0 to 36. Having the heavier neonates group as reference, the HR for time to the first episode of BSI was 2.94 (95% CI 1.92–4.34, P < 0.01) from day 37 to 90. Late-onset neonatal sepsis prevention measures should consider the differences in risk during time, according to neonates' birth weight.

Enhanced infection control interventions reduced catheter-related bloodstream infections in the neonatal department of Hung Vuong Hospital, Vietnam, 2011-2012: a pre- and post-intervention study

Background

Catheter-related bloodstream infections (CR-BSI) cause high neonatal mortality and are related to inadequate aseptic technique during the care and maintenance of a catheter. The incidence of CR-BSI among neonates in Hung Vuong Hospital was higher than that of other neonatal care centres in Vietnam.

Methods

An 18-month pre- and post-intervention study was conducted over three 6-month periods to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention for CR-BSI and to identify risk factors associated with CR-BSI. During the intervention period, we trained all nurses in the Department of Neonatology on BSI preventive practices, provided auditing and feedback about aseptic technique during catheter care and maintenance, and reorganised preparation of total parenteral nutrition. All neonates with intravenous catheter insertion ≥48 h in the pre- and post-intervention period were enrolled. A standardised questionnaire was used to collect data. Blood samples were collected for cultures. We used Poisson regression to calculate rate ratio (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) for CR-BSI incidence rates and logistic regression to identify risk factors associated with CR-BSI.

Results

Of 2225 neonates enrolled, 1027 were enrolled in the pre-intervention period, of which 53 CR-BSI cases occurred in 8399 catheter-days, and 1198 were enrolled in the post-intervention period, of which 32 CR-BSI cases occurred in 8324 catheter-days. Incidence rates of CR-BSI significantly decreased after the intervention (RR = 0.61, 95% CI 0.39-0.94). Days of hospitalisation, episodes of non-catheter-related hospital-acquired infections, and the proportion of deaths significantly decreased after the intervention (p < 0.01). The CR-BSI was associated with days of intravenous catheter (odds ratio [OR] = 1.05, 95% CI 1.03-1.08), use of endotracheal intubation (OR = 2.27, 95% CI 1.27-4.06), and intravenous injection (OR = 8.50, 95% CI 1.14-63.4).

Conclusions

The interventions significantly decreased the incidence rate of CR-BSI. Regular refresher training and auditing and feedback about aseptic technique during care and maintenance of catheters are critical to reducing CR-BSI.

Linking surveillance and clinical data for evaluating trends in bloodstream infection rates in neonatal units in England

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate variation in trends in bloodstream infection (BSI) rates in neonatal units (NNUs) in England according to the data sources and linkage methods used.

METHODS

We used deterministic and probabilistic methods to link clinical records from 112 NNUs in the National Neonatal Research Database (NNRD) to national laboratory infection surveillance data from Public Health England. We calculated the proportion of babies in NNRD (aged <1 year and admitted between 2010-2017) with a BSI caused by clearly pathogenic organisms between two days after admission and two days after discharge. We used Poisson regression to determine trends in the proportion of babies with BSI based on i) deterministic and probabilistic linkage of NNRD and surveillance data (primary measure), ii) deterministic linkage of NNRD-surveillance data, iii) NNRD records alone, and iv) linked NNRD-surveillance data augmented with clinical records of laboratory-confirmed BSI in NNRD.

RESULTS

Using deterministic and probabilistic linkage, 5,629 of 349,740 babies admitted to a NNU in NNRD linked with 6,660 BSI episodes accounting for 38% of 17,388 BSI records aged <1 year in surveillance data. The proportion of babies with BSI due to clearly pathogenic organisms during their NNU admission was 1.0% using deterministic plus probabilistic linkage (primary measure), compared to 1.0% using deterministic linkage alone, 0.6% using NNRD records alone, and 1.2% using linkage augmented with clinical records of BSI in NNRD. Equivalent proportions for babies born before 32 weeks of gestation were 5.0%, 4.8%, 2.9% and 5.9%. The proportion of babies who linked to a BSI decreased by 7.5% each year (95% confidence interval [CI]: -14.3%, -0.1%) using deterministic and probabilistic linkage but was stable using clinical records of BSI or deterministic linkage alone.

CONCLUSION

Linkage that combines BSI records from national laboratory surveillance and clinical NNU data sources, and use of probabilistic methods, substantially improved ascertainment of BSI and estimates of BSI trends over time, compared with single data sources.

Risk Factors for Health Care-Associated Sepsis in Critically Ill Neonates Stratified by Birth Weight

BACKGROUND

Health care-associated bloodstream infection (HABSI) is a frequent complication in neonatal intensive care. Research on risk factors stratified by birth weight and adjusted for severity of illness and comorbidities is limited. Our objective is to describe independent risk factors for HABSI in critically ill neonates with emphasis on risk variation between birth weight groups.

METHODS

We performed a single-center historical cohort study in a tertiary referral center. A neonatal intensive care-audit system was used to identify eligible neonates admitted for ≥72 hours (2002-2011). HABSI is defined according to National Institute of Child Health and Human Development criteria. Risk factors for HABSI were assessed by univariate and logistic regression analysis for the total cohort and for birth weight subgroups, that is, neonates ≤1500 g and >1500 g.

RESULTS

A total of 342 neonates developed HABSI in 5134 admissions of ≥72 hours (6.7%). Very low birth weight, total parenteral nutrition (TPN), mechanical ventilation, gastrointestinal disease, surgery (cardiac and other type), and renal insufficiency are independent risk factors for the total cohort. Gastrointestinal disease and cardiac surgery are independent risk factors in both birth weight groups; mechanical ventilation (odds ratio [OR]: 2.6; confidence interval [CI]: 1.6-4.0) and other type of surgery (OR: 4.3; CI: 2.1-8.8) are solely independent risk factors in the ≤1500-g cohort; TPN is exclusively an independent risk factor (OR: 7.9; CI: 3.9-16.2) in the >1500-g cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

In our neonatal intensive care unit, risk stratification by birth weight revealed some difference. Special attention concerning infection control practices is for neonates receiving TPN, mechanical ventilation, cardiac surgery, and with a gastrointestinal disease.

Update on infection control challenges in special pediatric populations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Compared with adults, neonatal and pediatric populations are especially vulnerable patients who have specific diagnostic and therapeutic differences; therefore, the standard infection control practices designed for adults are sometimes not effective or need modifications to work. This review focuses on the recent literature addressing the challenges and successes in preventing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Improving the implementation of pediatric versions of preventive bundles focusing on proper catheter insertion and maintenance, mainly as a part of a larger multimodal strategy, is effective in reducing the central-line-associated bloodstream infections in neonatal and pediatric populations including oncology patients. Appropriate feeding, antimicrobial stewardship, and infection control measures should be combined in reducing necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates. Implementing a multimodal bundle strategy adapted for pediatric population is successful in preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Appropriate use of antimicrobial prophylaxis remains the cornerstone for preventing surgical-site infections irrespective of age, with few additional effective adjuvant preventive practices in specific pediatric patients.

SUMMARY

Several evidence-based practices are effective in reducing the incidence and the impact of HAIs in children; however, proper implementation remains a challenge. Additionally, several adult preventive practices are still unestablished in children and need further thorough examination.

Neonatal blood stream infections in tertiary referral hospitals in Kurdistan, Iran

Background

Bloodstream infection (BSI) is one of the most common causes of nosocomial infection in neonatal intensive care units (NICU). The aim of the present study was to determine bacterial agents and their susceptibility patterns to antibiotics and to investigate the risk factors associated with BSI.

Methods

This was a nested case–control study carried out from September 2009 to June 2010 in the NICU wards in Sanandaj hospitals western Iran. Cases were patients with BSI and controls were other patients who had negative blood culture. Bacteriologic diagnosis and antibiotic susceptibility pattern was performed based on the Edward & Ewings and the National Committee of Clinical Laboratory (NCCL) Standards.

Results

Of 472 patients who hospitalized in NICU, 6.4% had BSI (n = 30) including 17girls (56.7%) and 13 boys (43.3%). Enterobacter SPP was the predominant isolated bacteria from blood culture (36.7%). The maximum antibiotic resistance and sensitivity were observed by Tetracycline and Ciprofloxacin respectively. Risk factors associated with BSI were age ≤ 7 days (p = 0.001), previous antibiotic consumption (p = 0.013), and low birth weight (LBW), (p = 0.001).

Conclusions

Gram negative bacteria and Entrobacter in particular are the most common pathogens. Improving prenatal health care, standards of infection control and choosing accurate antibiotics are recommended to avoid BSI in neonatal intensive care units.

Prediction models for neonatal health care-associated sepsis: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Blood culture is the gold standard to diagnose bloodstream infection but is usually time-consuming. Prediction models aim to facilitate early preliminary diagnosis and treatment. We systematically reviewed prediction models for health care-associated bloodstream infection (HABSI) in neonates, identified superior models, and pooled clinical predictors.

DATA SOURCES

LibHub, PubMed, and Web of Science.

METHODS

The studies included designed prediction models for laboratory-confirmed HABSI or sepsis. The target population was a consecutive series of neonates with suspicion of sepsis hospitalized for ≥ 48 hours. Clinical predictors had to be recorded at time of or before culturing. Methodologic quality of the studies was assessed. Data extracted included population characteristics, total suspected and laboratory-confirmed episodes and definition, clinical parameter definitions and odds ratios, and diagnostic accuracy parameters.

RESULTS

The systematic search revealed 9 articles with 12 prediction models representing 1295 suspected and 434 laboratory-confirmed sepsis episodes. Models exhibit moderate-good methodologic quality, large pretest probability range, and insufficient diagnostic accuracy. Random effects meta-analysis showed that lethargy, pallor/mottling, total parenteral nutrition, lipid infusion, and postnatal corticosteroids were predictive for HABSI. Post hoc analysis with low-gestational-age neonates demonstrated that apnea/bradycardia, lethargy, pallor/mottling, and poor peripheral perfusion were predictive for HABSI. Limitations include clinical and statistical heterogeneity.

CONCLUSIONS

Prediction models should be considered as guidance rather than an absolute indicator because they all have limited diagnostic accuracy. Lethargy and pallor and/or mottling for all neonates as well as apnea and/or bradycardia and poor peripheral perfusion for very low birth weight neonates are the most powerful clinical signs. However, the clinical context of the neonate should always be considered.

Bloodstream infections: epidemiology and resistance

Bloodstream infections in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) are associated with many adverse outcomes in infants, including increased length of stay and cost, poor neurodevelopmental outcomes, and death. Attention to the insertion and maintenance of central lines, along with careful review of when the catheters can be safely discontinued, can minimize central-line-associated bloodstream infections rates. Good antibiotic stewardship can further decrease the incidence of bloodstream infections, minimize the emergence of drug-resistant organisms or Candida as pathogens in the NICU, and safeguard the use of currently available antibiotics for future infants.

Prevention of healthcare-associated infections in neonates: room for improvement

Infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) are highly susceptible to infection due to the immaturity of their immune systems. Healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) are associated with prolonged hospital stay, and represent a significant risk factor for neurological development problems and death. Improving HCAI control is a priority for NICUs. Many factors contribute to the occurrence of HCAIs in neonates such as poor hand hygiene, low nurse–infant ratios, environmental contamination and unnecessary use of antibiotics. Prevention is based on improving neonatal management, avoiding unnecessary use of central venous catheters, restricting use of antibiotics and H2 blockers, and introducing antifungal prophylaxis if necessary. Quality improvement interventions to reduce HCAIs in neonates seem to be the cornerstone of infection control.

Late onset sepsis in newborn babies: epidemiology and effect of a bundle to prevent central line associated bloodstream infections in the neonatal intensive care unit

Aim

We assessed late onset sepsis (LOS) rates of neonates in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) before and after implementing an evidence-based bundle to prevent these infections in a country with poor resources.

Methods

We evaluate trends of LOS between October 2010 and August 2012 in a large tertiary hospital in Brazil. We designed a protocol based of CDC guidelines for insertion of maintenance of central venous catheter targeted to reduction of bloodstream infections. During this period two major events occurred: a great increase of LOS rates in January months and relocation of the unit to a provisory place. Additionally we evaluated the risk factors and etiology of these infections.

Results

A total of 112 (20.3%) cases defined as LOS were found. The overall incidence rate of LOS in the study was 16.1/1000 patient/days and 23.0/1000 CVC-days. Our monthly rates data of LOS/1000 patient-day reveal fluctuations over the studied period, with incidence rates of these infections in staff vacation period (January 2011 and 2012) significantly higher (59.6/1000 patients-days) than compared with the other months rates (16.6/1000 patients-days) (IRR = 3.59; p < 0.001). As opposite, the incidence rates of LOS during relocation period was lower (10.3/1000 patients-days) when compared with baseline period 26.7/1000 patients-days (IRR = 2.59; p = 0.007). After the intervention period, these rates decreased in the post intervention period, when compared with preintervention 14.7/1000 patients-days and 23.4/1000 patients-days, respectively (IRR = 1.59; p = 0.04).

Conclusion

Through simple infection control measures, LOS can be successfully controlled especially in NICUs of limited resources countries such as ours.

Healthcare-associated bloodstream infections in a neonatal intensive care unit over a 20-year period (1992-2011): trends in incidence, pathogens, and mortality

OBJECTIVE

To analyze trends in the incidence and pathogen distribution of healthcare-associated bloodstream infections (HABSIs) over a 20-year period (1992-2011).

DESIGN

Historical cohort study.

SETTING

Thirty-two-bed neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) in a tertiary referral hospital.

PATIENTS

Neonates with HABSIs defined according to the criteria of the National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD).

METHODS

A hospital-based ongoing surveillance program was used to identify HABSI cases in neonates. A distinction between definite or possible HABSI was made according to the NICHD criteria. Incidence, incidence densities (HABSIs per 1,000 hospital-days and HABSIs per 1,000 total parenteral nutrition-days), and case fatality rate were calculated. Logistic regression analysis was used to find time trends. Four periods of 5 years were considered when executing variance analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 682 episodes of HABSIs occurred on 9,934 admissions (6.9%). The median total incidence density rate was 3.1 (interquartile range, 2.2-3.9). A significant increasing time trend in incidence density was observed for the period 1995-2011 (P < .003). A significant decrease in the case fatality rate was found in the last 5-year period (P < .001). No neonate died following possible HABSIs, whereas the case fatality rate among neonates with definite HABSIs was 9.7%. Most HABSIs were caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci (n = 414 [60.7%]). A significant increase in Staphylococcus aureus HABSI was observed in the last 10-year period (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

An increase in incidence density rate occurred, while the case fatality rate dropped. Better perinatal care could be responsible for the latter. A decrease in days before infection and a high incidence of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus HABSIs indicate the need for vigorous application of evidence-based prevention initiatives, in particular for catheter care.

A systematic review of strategies for reporting of neonatal hospital-acquired bloodstream infections

OBJECTIVE

To examine the reporting of hospital-acquired bloodstream infection (HABSI) and central line-associated BSI (CLABSI) rates in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs).

DESIGN

Systematic review of evidence published after 2000 reporting HABSI cumulative incidence, crude HABSI and/or CLABSI rate and total patient-days and/or central line-days for single NICU.

SETTING

Inpatient.

PATIENTS

Neonates admitted to NICU.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

To consider the reporting of and relationship between cumulative incidence of BSI and HABSI and/or CLABSI rates.

RESULTS

18 studies fulfilled inclusion criteria. There was a wide variability in reporting of HABSI indicators and risk-adjustment strategies with reported crude HABSI and/or CLABSI rates showing an approximately sevenfold variation between centres. Information about NICU size and level of care was not always available. Many studies provided insufficient information about case mix, such as surgical care provision and prematurity. The proportion of total patient-days that were central venous catheters (CVC)-days ranged from 11.7% to 85.4%. Only six studies reported HABSI and CLABSI incidence. Comparing HABSI and CLABSI ranking, we found a relationship between rates.

CONCLUSIONS

We found significant variability in HABSI rate reporting. Although there appears to be an association between CLABSI and HABSI rates, non-CVC-related BSIs are likely to be highly relevant in some NICUs. If confirmed, and given CLABSI rates are more challenging to collect, it may be more appropriate to use HABSI rates for monitoring NICU healthcare-associated infection (HAI) in some settings. A European network of NICUs using a standardised methodology is required to determine the feasibility and reliability of different risk-adjusted measured of HAI rates.

Late-onset neonatal sepsis, risk factors and interventions: an analysis of recurrent outbreaks of Serratia marcescens, 2006-2011

BACKGROUND

Between 2006 and 2011, 11 patients with Serratia marcescens sepsis and 47 patients colonized due to the spread of various clones were observed. These recurrent clusters brought about interventions to reduce spread between patients.

AIM

To evaluate the effect of stepwise interventions to prevent S. marcescens colonization/sepsis and to analyse risk factors for late-onset sepsis (LOS).

METHODS

An open retrospective observational study was performed to evaluate the interventions. A retrospective case-control study was performed to analyse the risk factors for LOS.

FINDINGS

S. marcescens sepsis and colonization decreased after the stepwise adoption of hygiene interventions. Low gestational age, low birth weight, indwelling central venous or umbilical catheter, and ventilator treatment were identified as risk factors for LOS. Compliance with basic hygiene guidelines was the only intervention monitored continuously from late 2007. Compliance increased gradually to a steady high level in early 2009. There was a decrease in S. marcescens LOS, clustering after the second quarter of 2008. After the first quarter of 2009, S. marcescens colonization decreased.

CONCLUSION

It was not possible to identify the specific effects of each intervention, but it is likely that an update of the hospital's antibiotic policy affected the occurrence of S. marcescens LOS. The delayed effect of interventions on S. marcescens colonization was probably due to the time it takes for new routines to have an effect, illustrated by the gradual increase in compliance with basic hygiene guidelines.

Trends in paediatric nosocomial bacteraemia in a London tertiary hospital

AIM

To describe the incidence and microbiological characteristics of nosocomial bloodstream infections in childhood over a 9-year period at a South London tertiary hospital.

METHODS

Analysis of prospective data collected for clinically significant nosocomial bloodstream infections in children aged <16 years during 2001-2009.

RESULTS

During the study period, although the absolute number of nosocomial bloodstream infections were similar for the neonatal unit (n = 254) and paediatric wards (n = 224), rates were 11.6-fold (95% CI, 9.8-13.9) higher for the former (5.8 vs. 0.50/100 discharges, respectively). Analysis of trends revealed a significant reduction in rates for both the neonatal unit (7.8-2.5 episodes/100 discharges; p < 0.001) and paediatric wards (1.2-0.4 episodes/100 discharges; p < 0.001), mainly due a decline in catheter-associated staphylococcal bacteraemia, which accounted for 115 (45%) and 164 (73%) episodes in the paediatric wards and neonatal units, respectively. Gram-positive cocci were the most frequent pathogens recovered, accounting for 200 (79%) and 185 (83%) cases in the neonatal unit and paediatric wards, respectively. Overall, antimicrobial resistance rates were low compared with other industrialized countries.

CONCLUSION

Nosocomial bloodstream infections rates declined significantly in our hospital over the past decade, likely driven by local introduction of national infection-control bundles particularly focussing on insertion and maintenance of intravascular catheters.

Risk of parenteral nutrition in neonates--an overview

Healthcare-associated infections (HAI) in preterm infants are a challenge to the care of these fragile patients. HAI-incidence rates range from 6 to 27 infections per 1000 patient-days. Most nosocomial infections are bloodstream infections and of these, the majority is associated with the use of central venous catheters. Many studies identified parenteral nutrition as an independent risk factor for HAI, catheter-associated bloodstream infection, and clinical sepsis. This fact and various published outbreaks due to contaminated parenteral nutrition preparations highlight the importance of appropriate standards in the preparation and handling of intravenous solutions and parenteral nutrition. Ready-to-use parenteral nutrition formulations may provide additional safety in this context. However, there is concern that such formulations may result in overfeeding and necrotizing enterocolitis. Given the risk for catheter-associated infection, handling with parenteral nutrition should be minimized and the duration shortened. Further research is required about this topic.

Reduction of catheter-associated bloodstream infections through procedures in newborn babies admitted in a university hospital intensive care unit in Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Catheter-associated bloodstream infection (CA-BSI) is the most common nosocomial infection in neonatal intensive care units. There is evidence that care bundles to reduce CA-BSI are effective in the adult literature. The aim of this study was to reduce CA-BSI in a Brazilian neonatal intensive care unit by means of a care bundle including few strategies or procedures of prevention and control of these infections.

METHODS

An intervention designed to reduce CA-BSI with five evidence-based procedures was conducted.

RESULTS

A total of sixty-seven (26.7%) CA-BSIs were observed. There were 46 (32%) episodes of culture-proven sepsis in group preintervention (24.1 per 1,000 catheter days [CVC days]). Neonates in the group after implementation of the intervention had 21 (19.6%) episodes of CA-BSI (14.9 per 1,000 CVC days). The incidence of CA-BSI decreased significantly after the intervention from the group preintervention and postintervention (32% to 19.6%, 24.1 per 1,000 CVC days to 14.9 per 1,000 CVC days, p=0.04). In the multiple logistic regression analysis, the use of more than 3 antibiotics and length of stay >8 days were independent risk factors for BSI.

CONCLUSIONS

A stepwise introduction of evidence-based intervention and intensive and continuous education of all healthcare workers are effective in reducing CA-BSI.

Central line "attention" is their best prevention

Central line associated blood stream infections (CLABIs) are associated with an increase in length of stay, morbidity, hospital costs, and mortality. In 2009, CLABIs were on the increase at Covenant Healthcare's 55 bed Level III neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Prior to this practice initiative, there were no standardized central line management practices in the NICU. We retrospectively reviewed the incidence CLABIs for the six months prior to the initiation of the standardization of central line management and then 3 months following the implementation of the new practice policy. Specific outcomes measured were the number of CLABIs, length of stay related to CLABIs, and adherence to the policies and procedures. The project was implemented in four phases: 1) hand hygiene, 2) "scrub the hub", 3) central line tubing changes, 4) central line insertion, removal, and dressing changes. Although there were no statistically significant changes in the outcome measures, there were clinically significant differences between length of stay and risk for central line infection, incidence of CLABIs, and an increase in adherence to the central line practice change policies. The study showed for every week that is added to the patient stay, the patient was 7 times more likely to have a CLABIs. The rate of central line infection was decreased from 15.6 percent per 1000 line days to zero in 2010.

Chlorhexidine antisepsis significantly reduces the incidence of sepsis and septicemia during parenteral nutrition in surgical infants

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

After a change in national policy, central venous catheter (CVC) antisepsis with chlorhexidine was introduced in our hospital. Our aim was to evaluate whether this change reduced the rate of infection seen during parenteral nutrition (PN) in infants requiring gastrointestinal surgery.

METHODS

Two groups of consecutive infants were compared: control, 98 infants who had CVC antisepsis with 70% isopropanol alone, and chlorhexidine, 112 infants who had CVC antisepsis with 2% chlorhexidine in 70% isopropanol. Incidence rates of sepsis (blood cultures taken) and septicemia (blood cultures positive) were compared by Poisson regression.

RESULTS

Seventy-one percent of infants experienced clinically suspected sepsis. The incidence of septicemia was 32%. The incidence rate ratio for sepsis was 0.72 (95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.84) for the chlorhexidine group vs control (P < .0005). The incidence rate ratio for septicemia was 0.49 (95% confidence interval, 0.36-0.67; P < .0005); that is, over a given period of PN, patients had half the rate of positive blood cultures after the introduction of chlorhexidine antisepsis compared with before.

CONCLUSION

(1) The incidence of sepsis and septicemia among surgical infants on PN for gastrointestinal anomalies is high. (2) Chlorhexidine CVC antisepsis has significantly reduced this incidence, and we advocate its use in this group of patients.

Individualized catheter surveillance among neonates: a prospective, 8-year, single-center experience

OBJECTIVE

To monitor trends in central line-associated bloodstream infections and clinical sepsis (CLABICS) among neonates and to determine risk factors for infection, especially dwell time.

DESIGN

Prospective, single-center cohort study conducted from 2001 through 2008.

SETTING

University-affiliated tertiary care center.

METHODS

Individualized surveillance of catheter use and CLABICS episodes was conducted. Data were obtained via regular on-site visits made 3 times a week. Trends over time were estimated by Poisson regression, and risk factor analysis was conducted using a Cox proportional hazards model and logistic regression.

RESULTS

In all, 1,124 neonates were exposed to 2,210 central lines for a total of 12,746 catheter-days and 11,467 catheter-days at risk. The median duration of catheter use was 8 (interquartile range, 5-11) days for peripherally inserted central catheters (PICCs) and 4 (interquartile range, 2-6) days for umbilical catheters; 102 CLABICS episodes were detected. The median time to infection was 7 days. Incidence densities were 8.5 CLABICS episodes per 1,000 catheter-days at risk and 8.0 CLABICS episodes per 1,000 catheter-days. The highest rates were identified among neonates weighing 750 g or lower (14.9 CLABICS episodes per 1,000 catheter days at risk) and for PICCs (13.2 CLABICS episodes per 1,000 catheter days at risk). Catheter dwell time was associated with CLABICS for all umbilical catheters (odds ratio [OR], 1.2 per day of use [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.1-1.3]; P < .001) and for PICCs for up to 7 days (OR, 1.2 [95% CI, 1.1-1.4]; P = .041), but not thereafter (OR, 1.0 [95% CI, 0.9-1.1]; P = .90).

CONCLUSION

Catheter dwell time is a risk factor for CLABICS during the first 7 days, irrespective of catheter type. After 7 days, PICCs are less likely to become infected.

Determinants of nosocomial infection in 6 neonatal intensive care units: an Italian multicenter prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Nosocomial infections are still a major cause of morbidity and mortality among neonates admitted to neonatal intensive care units (NICUs).

OBJECTIVE

To describe the epidemiology of nosocomial infections in NICUs and to assess the risk of nosocomial infection related to the therapeutic procedures performed and to the clinical characteristics of the neonates at birth and at admission to the NICU, taking into account the time between the exposure and the onset of infection.

DESIGN

A multicenter, prospective cohort study.

PATIENTS AND SETTING

A total of 1,692 neonates admitted to 6 NICUs in Italy were observed and monitored for the development of nosocomial infection during their hospital stay.

METHODS

Data were collected on the clinical characteristics of the neonates admitted to the NICUs, their therapeutic interventions and treatments, their infections, and their mortality rate. The cumulative probability of having at least 1 infection and the cumulative probability of having at least 1 infection or dying were estimated. The hazard ratio (HR) for the first infection and the HR for the first infection or death were also estimated.

RESULTS

A total of 255 episodes of nosocomial infection were diagnosed in 217 neonates, yielding an incidence density of 6.9 episodes per 1,000 patient-days. The risk factors related to nosocomial infection in very-low-birth-weight neonates were receipt of continuous positive airway pressure (HR, 3.8 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.7-8.1]), a Clinical Risk Index for Babies score of 4 or greater (HR, 2.2 [95% CI, 1.4-3.4]), and a gestational age of less than 28 weeks (HR, 2.1 [95% CI, 1.2-3.8]). Among heavier neonates, the risk factors for nosocomial infection were receipt of parenteral nutrition (HR, 8.1 [95% CI, 3.2-20.5]) and presence of malformations (HR, 2.3 [95% CI, 1.5-3.5]).

CONCLUSIONS

Patterns of risk factors for nosocomial infection differ between very-low-birth-weight neonates and heavier neonates. Therapeutic procedures appear to be strong determinants of nosocomial infection in both groups of neonates, after controlling for clinical characteristics.

A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of the effect of prebiotic oligosaccharides on enteral tolerance in preterm infants (ISRCTN77444690)

Breast milk prebiotic oligosaccharides are believed to promote enteral tolerance. Many mothers delivering preterm are unable to provide sufficient milk. We conducted a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial comparing preterm formula containing 0.8 g/100 mL short-chain galacto-oligosaccharides/long-chain fructo-oligosaccharides in a 9:1 ratio and an otherwise identical formula, using formula only to augment insufficient maternal milk volume. Infants were randomized within 24 h of birth. The primary outcome (PO) was time to establish a total milk intake of 150 mL/kg/d PO and the principal secondary outcome (PSO) was proportion of time between birth and 28 d/discharge that a total milk intake of ≥ 150 mL/kg/d was tolerated. Other secondary outcomes included growth, fecal characteristics, gastrointestinal signs, necrotizing enterocolitis, and bloodstream infection. Outcomes were compared adjusted for prespecified covariates. We recruited 160 infants appropriately grown for GA <33 wk. There were no significant differences in PO or PSOs. After covariate adjustment, we showed significant benefit from trial formula in PSO with increasing infant immaturity (2.9% improved tolerance for a baby born at 28-wk gestation and 9.9% at 26-wk gestation; p < 0.001) but decreased or no benefit in babies >31-wk gestation. Prebiotic supplementation appears safe and may benefit enteral tolerance in the most immature infants.

Risk-adjusted surveillance of hospital-acquired infections in neonatal intensive care units: a systematic review

Comparisons of bacteraemia incidence between neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) can identify centres with effective infection control, whose practices can be shared with other units. For fair comparisons, infection incidence must be risk-adjusted to control for differences between centres in the vulnerability of babies and the intensity of invasive procedures which can introduce infection. We reviewed risk adjustment methods for between-NICU comparisons of bacteraemia incidence, both in the published literature and in regional and national NICU infection monitoring systems. PubMed and Embase were searched for studies reporting risk-adjusted bacteraemia incidence in more than one NICU. An internet search found NICU infection monitoring systems in Western industrialised countries. In all nine studies that met the inclusion criteria, risk adjustment reduced but did not eliminate variation in bacteraemia incidence between NICUs. In both the studies and the regional monitoring systems, adjustment for baby susceptibility generally involved stratification by factors measured at birth. Adjustment for Length of stay and invasive procedures involved reporting incidence by days with a device, such as central venous catheter days. Methods for NICU infection monitoring lack consistency. Adjustment for factors measured at birth fails to capture changes in susceptibility throughout admission and adjustment for device days does not adequately reflect risk to babies not treated with the device. Further research should address variation in risk for all babies throughout their NICU stay.

Which factors predict hospital-acquired late-onset neonatal sepsis?

Neonates are one of the highest risk groups of hospitalized patients for sepsis. There is a wide variation in the incidence and microbial causes of late-onset neonatal sepsis, owing to differences in both patient populations and standards of care in the individual neonatal units. Stratification according to risk factors is required to allow the meaningful comparison of infection rates between units. Knowledge of risk factors is also important in order to target interventions on high-risk aspects of neonatal care. Few independent risk factors for late-onset sepsis have been identified, the most common being birth gestational age and parenteral nutrition. Further work is required to validate that these observations can be generalized, and that they could, therefore, be used to stratify infection rates in multicenter surveillance schemes.