A review on recent progression of photocatalytic desulphurization study over decorated photocatalysts

Ag/Mo Doping for Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity of Titanium (IV) Dioxide during Fuel Desulphurization

Regarding photocatalytic oxidative desulphurization (PODS), titanium oxide (TiO2) is a promising contender as a catalyst due to its photocatalytic prowess and long-term performance in desulphurization applications. This work demonstrates the effectiveness of double-doping TiO2 in silver (Ag) and molybdenum (Mo) for use as a novel catalyst in the desulphurization of light-cut hydrocarbons. FESEM, EDS, and AFM were used to characterize the morphology, doping concentration, surface features, grain size, and grain surface area of the Ag/Mo powder. On the other hand, XRD, FTIR spectroscopy, UV-Vis, and PL were used for structure and functional group detection and light absorption analysis based on TiO2's illumination properties. The microscopic images revealed nanoparticles with irregular shapes, and a 3D-AFM image was used to determine the catalyst's physiognomies: 0.612 nm roughness and a surface area of 811.79 m2/g. The average sizes of the grains and particles were calculated to be 32.15 and 344.4 nm, respectively. The XRD analysis revealed an anatase structure for the doped TiO2, and the FTIR analysis exposed localized functional groups, while the absorption spectra of the catalyst, obtained via UV-Vis, revealed a broad spectrum, including visible and near-infrared regions up to 1053.34 nm. The PL analysis showed luminescence with a lower emission intensity, indicating that the charge carriers were not thoroughly combined. This study's findings indicate a desulphurization efficiency of 97%. Additionally, the promise of a nano-homogeneous particle distribution bodes well for catalytic reactions. The catalyst retains its efficiency when it is dried and reused, demonstrating its sustainable use while maintaining the desulphurization efficacy. This study highlights the potential of the double doping approach in enhancing the catalytic properties of TiO2, opening up new possibilities for improving the performance of photo-oxidative processes.

Recent progress and new insights on semiconductor heterojunctions powered photocatalytic desulphurization: A review

Desulphurization of fossil fuels is a critical process in reducing the sulphur content from environment, which is a major contributor to atmospheric pollution. Traditional desulphurization techniques, while effective, often involve high energy consumption and the use of harsh chemicals. Recently, photocatalytic desulphurization has emerged as a promising, eco-friendly alternative, leveraging the potential of photocatalysts especially semiconductor heterojunctions to enhance photocatalytic efficiency. This review comprehensively discusses the significance and mechanism of photocatalytic desulphurization reactions, designing of various heterojunctions such as conventional, p-n, Z-scheme and S-scheme, their charge transfer mechanism and properties and their contribution to the photocatalytic desulphurization activity. Heterojunctions, formed by combining different semiconductor materials, facilitate efficient charge separation and broaden the light absorption range, thereby improving the photocatalytic performance under visible light. Furthermore, the recent advancements in the heterojunction systems in the field of photocatalytic desulphurization activity have been discussed in detail and summarized. The current limitations and challenges in this particular field are also explored. The paper concludes with an outlook on future research directions and the potential industrial applications of heterojunction-powered photocatalytic desulphurization, emphasizing its role in achieving cleaner energy production and environmental sustainability.

Robust interaction of ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles with layered graphitic carbon nitride for enhanced photocatalytic oxidative desulfurization of fuel oil: mechanism, performance and stability

Sulfur compounds in fuel such as thiophene, benzothiophene and dibenzothiophene are the primary source of SO x emissions, leading to environmental pollution and acid rain. In this study, we synthesized a layered oxygen-doped graphitic carbon nitride (OCN) structure and integrated ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles onto the OCN surface through a microwave-assisted sol-gel method. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and density functional theory (DFT) results confirmed a robust interaction between the ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles and the oxygen-doped g-C3N4 (OCN) surface, as indicated by the formation of C-N-Ti and C-O-Ti bonds. This interaction notably improved the optoelectronic properties of the ZnO-TiO2/OCN composite, yielding increased visible light absorption, reduced charge recombination rate, and enhanced separation and transfer of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. The oxygen doping into the CN network could alter the band structure and expand the absorption range of visible light. The ZnO-TiO2/OCN photocatalyst demonstrated remarkable desulfurization capabilities, converting 99.19% of dibenzothiophene (DBT) to dibenzothiophene sulfone (DBT-O2) at 25 °C, and eliminating 92.13% of DBT from real-world fuel oil samples. We conducted in-depth analysis of the factors impacting the redox process of DBT, including the ZnO ratio, initial DBT concentration, catalyst dosage, stability, and O/S molar ratio. Radical trapping experiments established that ˙O2 -, ˙OH and h+ radicals significantly influence the reaction rate. The obtained results indicated that the ZnO-TiO2/OCN photocatalyst represents a promising tool for future fuel oil desulfurization applications.

Performance of V-Fe based catalysts on the oxidation of dibenzothiophenes

To obtain fossil fuels with ultra-low S levels at friendly conditions, different V oxides formulations on alumina modified with Fe were characterized and selected to oxidize dibenzothiophene (DBT), 4-methyl DBT and 4,6-dimethyl DBT prevailing in diesel fuel. V-Fe based catalysts (5 or 10 wt% of V) were obtained by impregnation of ammonium metavanadate solutions on Fe-modified alumina, obtained by impregnation of Mohr salt on pseudoboehmite (2 wt% of Fe). The catalysts were calcined in air atmosphere, and after were partially reduced with H2 flux to obtain a mix of several oxidation states of V and Fe species, to evaluate the interaction of Fe in VOx/Al2O3 catalysts and determine its effect on the oxidation processes. The structural and optical properties, as well as surface species, were determined by SEM-EDS, TPR, XRD, Raman, ATR-FTIR, photoluminescence, UV-Vis diffuse reflectance, and XPS spectroscopy. The catalytic performance was evaluated in oxidative desulfurization (ODS) and photocatalytic ODS (PODS) processes. The experimental results showed the addition of Fe promoted the catalytic activity of both ODS and PODS reactions. ODS activities of V-Fe catalysts increase up to 7.5 times with respect to V catalysts without Fe, and the most active catalyst (V5Fer) presents a characteristic oxidation time of 50 min for 4,6-DMDBT. The PODS activity of V10Fec was like ODS activity, showing it is possible to oxidize the dibenzothiophenes under friendly conditions to obtain lower S levels. The promoting effect of Fe was due to the interaction of Fe2+ and Fe3+ with the catalytic support, favoring the distribution of surface V3+ and V4+ species. Additionally, Fe improved the optical properties of the catalysts since the bandgap energy decrease and low recombination rate of the electron-hole pair were observed. Therefore, V-Fe based catalysts are photocatalytically actives to be used in PODS processes.

The versatility of nanocellulose, modification strategies, and its current progress in wastewater treatment and environmental remediation

Deterioration in the environmental ecosystems through the depletion of nonrenewable resources and the burden of deleterious contaminants is considered a global concern. To this end, great interest has been shown in the use of renewable and environmentally-friendly reactive materials dually to promote environmental sustainability and cope with harmful contaminants. Among the different available options, the use of nanocellulose (NC) as an environmentally benign and renewable natural nanomaterial is an attractive candidate for environmental remediation owing to its miraculous physicochemical characteristics. This review discusses the intrinsic properties and the structural aspects of different types of NC, including cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs), cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), and bacterial cellulose (BC) or bacterial nanocellulose (BNC). Also, the different modification strategies involving the functionalization or hybridization of NC by using different functional and reactive materials aimed at wastewater remediation have been elaborated. The modified or hybridized NC has been explored for its applications in the removal or degradation of aquatic contaminants through adsorption, filtration, coagulation, catalysis, photocatalysis, and pollutant sensing. This review highlights the role of NC in the modified composites and describes the underlying mechanisms involved in the removal of contaminants. The life-cycle assessment (LCA) of NC is discussed to unveil the hidden risks associated with its production to the final disposal. Moreover, the contribution of NC in the promotion of waste management at different stages has been described in the form of the five-Rs strategy. In summary, this review provides rational insights to develop NC-based environmentally-friendly reactive materials for the removal and degradation of hazardous aquatic contaminants.

Metal ferrites-based nanocomposites and nanohybrids for photocatalytic water treatment and electrocatalytic water splitting

Photocatalytic degradation is one of the most promising technologies available for removing a variety of synthetic and organic pollutants from the environmental matrices because of its high catalytic activity, reduced energy consumption, and low total cost. Due to its acceptable bandgap, broad light-harvesting efficiency, significant renewability, and stability, Fe₂O₃ has emerged as a fascinating material for the degradation of organic contaminants as well as numerous dyes. This study thoroughly reviewed the efficiency of Fe₂O₃-based nanocomposite and nanomaterials for water remediation. Iron oxide structure and various synthetic methods are briefly discussed. Additionally, the electrocatalytic application of Fe₂O₃-based nanocomposites, including oxygen evolution reaction, oxygen reduction reaction, hydrogen evolution reaction, and overall water splitting efficiency, was also highlighted to illustrate the great promise of these composites. Finally, the ongoing issues and future prospects are directed to fully reveal the standards of Fe₂O₃-based catalysts. This review is intended to disseminate knowledge for further research on the possible applications of Fe₂O₃ as a photocatalyst and electrocatalyst.

Towards the Sustainable Production of Ultra-Low-Sulfur Fuels through Photocatalytic Oxidation

Nowadays, the sulfur-containing compounds are removed from motor fuels through the traditional hydrodesulfurization technology, which takes place under harsh reaction conditions (temperature of 350–450 °C and pressure of 30–60 atm) in the presence of catalysts based on alumina with impregnated cobalt and molybdenum. According to the principles of green chemistry, energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized, i.e., the chemical processes should be carried out at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. This approach could be implemented using photocatalysts that are sensitive to visible light. The creation of highly active photocatalytic systems for the deep purification of fuels from sulfur compounds becomes an important task of modern catalysis science. The present critical review reports recent progress over the last 5 years in heterogeneous photocatalytic desulfurization under visible light irradiation. Specific attention is paid to the methods for boosting the photocatalytic activity of materials, with a focus on the creation of heterojunctions as the most promising approach. This review also discusses the influence of operating parameters (nature of oxidant, molar ratio of oxidant/sulfur-containing compounds, photocatalyst loading, etc.) on the reaction efficiency. Some perspectives and future research directions on photocatalytic desulfurization are also provided.

Synthesis and Characterization of Bi2WxMo1−xO6 Solid Solutions and Their Application in Photocatalytic Desulfurization under Visible Light

Photocatalytic oxidative desulfurization has attracted much attention in recent years due to the continuous tightening of the sulfur content requirements in motor fuels and the disadvantages of the industrial hydrodesulfurization process. This work is devoted to the investigation of the photocatalytic activity of Bi2WxMo1−xO6 solid solutions (x = 1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0) in the oxidative desulfurization of hydrocarbons under visible light irradiation using hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant. The synthesized photocatalysts were characterized in detail using XRD, SEM, EDS, low-temperature nitrogen adsorption–desorption, and DRS. It was shown that the use of solid solutions Bi2WxMo1−xO6 with x = 0.5–0.75 leads to the complete oxidation of organosulfur compounds to CO2 and H2O within 120 min. The high photocatalytic activity of solid solutions (x = 0.5–0.75) is attributed to their ability to absorb more visible light, the presence of the corner-shared [Mo/WO6] octahedral layers, which may promote the generation and separation of photogenerated charges, and the hierarchical 3D flower-like structure. The reaction mechanism of the desulfurization was also analyzed in this work.

Recent advances on nanocellulose biomaterials for environmental health photoremediation: An overview

As one of the potential bionanomaterials, nanocellulose has appeared as a favorable candidate for photoremediation of the environment because of its abundance in nature, inexpensive, eco-friendly, decomposable, high surface area, and outstanding mechanical properties. The current review carefully summarized the diverse type of nanocellulose, their preparation approaches, and several previous works on the use of nanocellulose for photoremediation. These include the role of nanocellulose for the increased surface active site of the hybrid photocatalysts by providing a large surface area for enhanced adsorption of photons and pollutant molecules, as a dispersing agent to increase distribution of metal/non-metal dopants photocatalysts, as well as for controlled size and morphology of the dopants photocatalysts. Furthermore, the recommendations for upcoming research provided in this review are anticipated to ignite an idea for the development of other nanocellulose-based photocatalysts. Other than delivering beneficial information on the present growth of the nanocellulose biomaterials photocatalysts, this review is expected will attract more interest to the utilization of nanocellulose photocatalyst and distribute additional knowledge in this exciting area of environmental photoremediation. This could be attained by considering that a review on nanocellulose biomaterials for environmental health photoremediation has not been described elsewhere, notwithstanding intensive research works have been dedicated to this topic.

Semiconducting nanomaterials for photocatalytic desulfurization of liquid fuel under sunlight irradiation

Nanomaterials have fascinated the interest of researchers due to their unique electronic, optical, magnetic, and several other properties. Tin sulfide (SnS2) and Zinc oxide (ZnO) have emerged as promising materials for pharmaceutical, textile, environmental remediation, energy conversion, and storage device design. These two compounds were widely used in waste-water treatment for photocatalytic destruction of organic contaminants. However, the degradation of organic sulfur compounds in the liquid fuel desulfurization process has rarely been investigated using such materials. We hereby, present a hydrothermal method for developing the hexagonal lattice structure of SnS2 and ZnO for the deep desulfurization of model liquid fuel. These materials were further characterized through powder X-ray diffraction for phase purity and crystalline, FTIR analysis to validate functional groups, N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm to study surface properties, UV–vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for band gap analysis, scanning and transmission electron microscopy for morphology analysis. The optical behavior reveals that the energy gap for SnS2 and ZnO is 2.09 and 3.21 eV, respectively which corresponds to the visible light absorption range. The photocatalysis experiment was carried out in direct sunlight to degrade 10 ppm DBT in iso-octane. The obtained results show that 60% of the DBT degrade with SnS2 and 15% of the DBT degraded with ZnO in 120 min, with a first-order kinetics rate constant of 0.009 and 0.001 min−1 respectively.

A current overview of the oxidative desulfurization of fuels utilizing heat and solar light: from materials design to catalysis for clean energy

The ceaseless increase of pollution cases due to the tremendous consumption of fossil fuels has steered the world towards an environmental crisis and necessitated urgency to curtail noxious sulfur oxide emissions. Since the world is moving toward green chemistry, a fuel desulfurization process driven by clean technology is of paramount significance in the field of environmental remediation. Among the novel desulfurization techniques, the oxidative desulfurization (ODS) process has been intensively studied and is highlighted as the rising star to effectuate sulfur-free fuels due to its mild reaction conditions and remarkable desulfurization performances in the past decade. This critical review emphasizes the latest advances in thermal catalytic ODS and photocatalytic ODS related to the design and synthesis routes of myriad materials. This encompasses the engineering of metal oxides, ionic liquids, deep eutectic solvents, polyoxometalates, metal-organic frameworks, metal-free materials and their hybrids in the customization of advantageous properties in terms of morphology, topography, composition and electronic states. The essential connection between catalyst characteristics and performances in ODS will be critically discussed along with corresponding reaction mechanisms to provide thorough insight for shaping future research directions. The impacts of oxidant type, solvent type, temperature and other pivotal factors on the effectiveness of ODS are outlined. Finally, a summary of confronted challenges and future outlooks in the journey to ODS application is presented.

Preparation of a ZnIn2S4–ZnAlOx nanocomposite for photoreduction of CO2 to CO

The ZnIn₂S₄–ZnAlO_x nanocomposite inhibits the recombination of charge carriers and therefore significantly boosts CO₂ photoreduction efficiency.

Understanding the effects of co-exposed facets on photocatalytic activities and fuel desulfurization performance in BiOCl singlet-crystalline sheets

Two kinds of well-crystallized BiOCl singlet-crystalline sheets (BOC-01 with twin-facet co-exposure of {001} and {110} and BOC-02 with tri-facet co-exposure of {001}, {110}, and {010}) were prepared and characterized. The photocatalytic desulfurization performance of BOC-01 and BOC-02 was tested by using n-decane and tetradecane as model oil containing heterocyclic sulfur-containing compounds (benzothiophene, or dibenzothiophene, or 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene). The desulfurization performance showed that twin-facet co-exposed BOC-01 had a slightly higher photocatalytic activity than tri-facet co-exposed BOC-02. The differences of photocatalytic activity between BOC-01 and BOC-02 were further explored by paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, ultraviolet diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, steady-state and time-resolved prompt fluorescencespectra. The results disclosed that the exciton effect in BOC-01 played a key role in photocatalytic activation of molecular oxygen, while BOC-02 mainly produced reactive oxygen species by charge transfer. Theoretical calculations further indicated that the photogenerated electrons are mainly distributed on the {110} facets and the photogenerated holes are mainly distributed on the {001} facets in BOC-01 and BOC-02. This work provides a useful clue for an in-depth understanding of the effects of co-exposed facets in BiOCl on photocatalytic performance.

A review on exploration of Fe2O3 photocatalyst towards degradation of dyes and organic contaminants

Photocatalytic degradation is among the promising technology for removal of various dyes and organic contaminants from environment owing to its excellent catalytic activity, low energy utilization, and low cost. As one of potential photocatalysts, Fe₂O₃ has emerged as an important material for degradation of numerous dyes and organic contaminants caused by its tolerable band gap, wide harvesting of visible light, good stability and recyclability. The present review thoroughly summarized the classification, synthesis route of Fe₂O₃ with different morphologies, and several modifications of Fe₂O₃ for improved photocatalytic performance. These include the incorporation with supporting materials, formation of heterojunction with other semiconductor photocatalysts, as well as the fabrication of Z-scheme. Explicitly, the other photocatalytic applications of Fe₂O₃, including for removal of heavy metals, reduction of CO₂, evolution of H₂, and N₂ fixation are also deliberately discussed to further highlight the huge potential of this catalyst. Moreover, the prospects and future challenges are also comprised to expose the unscrutinized criteria of Fe₂O₃ photocatalyst. This review aims to contribute a knowledge transfer for providing more information on the potential of Fe₂O₃ photocatalyst. In the meantime, it might give an idea for utilization of this photocatalyst in other environmental remediation application.