T follicular helper and T follicular regulatory cells in colorectal cancer: A complex interplay

IFNγ at the early stage induced after cryo-thermal therapy maintains CD4+ Th1-prone differentiation, leading to long-term antitumor immunity

Introduction

Recently, more and more research illustrated the importance of inducing CD4+ T helper type (Th)-1 dominant immunity for the success of tumor immunotherapy. Our prior studies revealed the crucial role of CD4+ Th1 cells in orchestrating systemic and durable antitumor immunity, which contributes to the satisfactory outcomes of the novel cryo-thermal therapy in the B16F10 tumor model. However, the mechanism for maintaining the cryo-thermal therapy-mediated durable CD4+ Th1-dominant response remains uncovered. Additionally, cryo-thermal-induced early-stage CD4+ Th1-dominant T cell response showed a correlation with the favorable prognosis in patients with colorectal cancer liver metastasis (CRCLM). We hypothesized that CD4+ Th1-dominant differentiation induced during the early stage post cryo-thermal therapy would affect the balance of CD4+ subsets at the late phase.

Methods

To understand the role of interferon (IFN)-γ, the major effector of Th1 subsets, in maintaining long-term CD4+ Th1-prone polarization, B16F10 melanoma model was established in this study and a monoclonal antibody was used at the early stage post cryo-thermal therapy for interferon (IFN)-γ signaling blockade, and the influence on the phenotypic and functional change of immune cells was evaluated.

Results

IFNγ at the early stage after cryo-thermal therapy maintained long-lasting CD4+ Th1-prone immunity by directly controlling Th17, Tfh, and Tregs polarization, leading to the hyperactivation of Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represented by abundant interleukin (IL)-1β generation, and thereby further amplifying Th1 response.

Discussion

Our finding emphasized the key role of early-phase IFNγ abundance post cryo-thermal therapy, which could be a biomarker for better prognosis after cryo-thermal therapy.

Upregulation of CCNB2 and a novel lncRNAs-related risk model predict prognosis in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is the main type of renal cell carcinoma. Cyclin B2 (CCNB2) is a subtype of B-type cyclin that is associated with the prognosis of several cancers. This study aimed to identify the relationship between CCNB2 and progression of ccRCC and construct a novel lncRNAs-related model to predict prognosis of ccRCC patients.

METHODS

The data were obtained from public databases. We identified CCNB2 in ccRCC using Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, univariate and multivariate Cox regression, and Gene Ontology analysis. External validation was then performed. The risk model was constructed based on prognostic lncRNAs by the LASSO algorithm and multivariate Cox regression. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves were used to evaluate the model. Consensus clustering analysis was performed to re-stratify the patients. Finally, we analyzed the tumor-immune microenvironment and performed screening of potential drugs.

RESULTS

CCNB2 associated with late clinicopathological parameters and poor prognosis in ccRCC and was an independent predictor for disease-free survival. In addition, CCNB2 shared the same expression pattern with known suppressive immune checkpoints. A risk model dependent on the expression of three prognostic CCNB2-related lncRNAs (SNHG17, VPS9D1-AS1, and ZMIZ1-AS1) was constructed. The risk signature was an independent predictor of ccRCC. The area under the ROC (AUC) curve for overall survival at 1-, 3-, 5-, and 8-year was 0.704, 0.702, 0.741, and 0.763. The high-risk group and cluster 2 had stronger immunogenicity and were more sensitive to immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

CCNB2 could be an important biomarker for predicting prognosis in ccRCC patients. Furthermore, we developed a novel lncRNAs-related risk model and identified two CCNB2-related molecular clusters. The risk model performed well in predicting overall survival and immunological microenvironment of ccRCC.

A pan-cancer analysis of the role of argininosuccinate synthase 1 in human tumors

Aim

There is accumulating evidence indicating that ASS1 is closely related to tumors. No pan-cancer analysis of ASS1 was available.

Methods

Here we explored the gene expression and survival analysis of ASS1 across thirty-three tumors based on the datasets of the TCGA (Cancer Genome Atlas), the GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus), and the GEPIA2 (Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis, version 2).

Results

ASS1 is highly expressed in most normal tissues and is related to the progression of some tumors. We also report ASS1 genetic alteration and their association with tumor prognosis and report differences in ASS1 phosphorylation sites between tumors and control normal tissues. ASS1 expression was associated with the infiltration of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) for the TCGA tumors of BRCA (Breast invasive carcinoma), CESC (Cervical squamous cell carcinoma and endocervical adenocarcinoma), COAD (Colon adenocarcinoma), ESCA (Esophageal carcinoma), SKCM (Skin cutaneous melanoma), SKCM-Metastasis, TGCT (Testicular germ cell tumors), and endothelial cell for the tumors of BRCA, BRCA-Basal, CESC, ESCA, KIRC (Kidney renal clear cell carcinoma), LUAD (Lung adenocarcinoma), LUSC (Lung squamous cell carcinoma), SKCM, SKCM-Metastasis, SKCM-Primary, STAD (Stomach adenocarcinoma), and TGCT. The KEGG and GO analysis were used to analyze ASS1-related signaling pathways. Finally, we used Huh7 cell line to verify the function of ASS1 in vitro. After ASS1 knockdown using small interfering RNA (siRNA), the proliferation and invasion of Huh7 were enhanced, cyclin D1 was up-regulated, and anti-apoptotic protein bax was down-regulated, suggesting that ASS1 is a tumor suppressor gene in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Conclusion

Our first pan-cancer study offers a relatively comprehensive understanding of the roles of ASS1 in different tumors.

Prognostic and biological function value of OSBPL3 in colorectal cancer analyzed by multi-omic data analysis

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies in the world. This study proposes to reveal prognostic biomarkers for the prognosis and treatment of CRC patients.

METHODS

Differential analysis of OSBPL3 was performed in pan-cancer, and the correlation between clinical stage and OSBPL3 was analyzed. Multiple omics analysis was used to compare the relationship between survival of patients and copy number variation, single nucleotide variant, and methylation status. Survival differences between high and low OSBPL3 expression groups were analyzed. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between high and low OSBPL3 expression groups were obtained, and functional enrichment analysis was implemented. Correlations between immune cells and OSBPL3 was analyzed. Drug sensitivity between the two OSBPL3 expression groups was compared. Moreover, the expression of OSBPL3 was verified by immunohistochemistry and real-time quantitative PCR.

RESULTS

OSBPL3 was differentially expressed in 13 tumors and had some correlations with T and N stages. OSBPL3 expression was regulated by methylation and higher OSBPL3 expression was associated with poorer prognosis in CRC. 128 DEGs were obtained and they were mainly involved in signaling receptor activator activity, aspartate and glutamate metabolism. T cell gamma delta and T cell follicular helper were significantly different in the high and low OSBPL3 expression groups. Moreover, OSBPL3 showed negative correlations with multiple drugs. OSBPL3 was significantly upregulated in CRC samples compared to normal samples.

CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive analysis demonstrated that OSBPL3 had potential prognostic value, and guiding significance for CRC chemotherapeutic.

New insights into follicular regulatory T cells in the intestinal and tumor microenvironments

Follicular regulatory T (Tfr) cells are a novel and unique subset of effector regulatory T (Treg) cells that are located in germinal centers (GCs). Tfr cells express transcription profiles that are characteristic of both follicular helper T (Tfh) cells and Treg cells and negatively regulate GC reactions, including Tfh cell activation and cytokine production, class switch recombination and B cell activation. Evidence also shows that Tfr cells have specific characteristics in different local immune microenvironments. This review focuses on the regulation of Tfr cell differentiation and function in unique local immune microenvironments, including the intestine and tumor.

Tertiary lymphoid structures in the primary tumor site of patients with cancer-associated myositis: A case-control study

Objective

To investigate histologic features of immunological components in the primary tumor site of patients with cancer-associated myositis (CAM) by focusing on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs), which play major roles in antitumor immunity.

Methods

Cancer-associated myositis patients were selected from the single-center idiopathic inflammatory myopathy cohort based on the availability of primary tumor specimens obtained before the introduction of immunomodulatory agents. Control cancer subjects without CAM were selected from the cancer tissue repository at a ratio of 1:2 matched for demographics and cancer characteristics of CAM cases. A series of immunohistochemical analyses was conducted using sequential tumor sections. TLS was defined as an ectopic lymphoid-like structure composed of DC-LAMP⁺ mature dendritic cells, CD23⁺ follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) and PNAd⁺ high endothelial venules. TLS distribution was classified into the tumor center, invasive margin, and peritumoral area.

Results

Six CAM patients and 12 matched non-CAM controls were eligible for the study. There was no apparent difference in the density or distribution of TILs between the groups. TLSs were found in 3 CAM patients (50%) and 4 non-CAM controls (33%). TLSs were exclusively located at the tumor center or invasive margin in CAM cases but were mainly found in the peritumoral area in non-CAM controls. FDCs and class-switched B cells colocalized with follicular helper T cells were abundantly found in the germinal center-like area of TLSs from CAM patients compared with those from non-CAM controls.

Conclusion

The adaptive immune response within TLSs in the primary tumor site might contribute to the pathogenic process of CAM.

Ovarian cancer-associated immune exhaustion involves SPP1+ T cell and NKT cell, symbolizing more malignant progression

Background

Ovarian cancer (OC) is highly heterogeneous and has a poor prognosis. A better understanding of OC biology could provide more effective therapeutic paradigms for different OC subtypes.

Methods

To reveal the heterogeneity of T cell-associated subclusters in OC, we performed an in-depth analysis of single-cell transcriptional profiles and clinical information of patients with OC. Then, the above analysis results were verified by qPCR and flow cytometry examine.

Results

After screening by threshold, a total of 85,699 cells in 16 ovarian cancer tissue samples were clustered into 25 major cell groups. By performing further clustering of T cell-associated clusters, we annotated a total of 14 T cell subclusters. Then, four distinct single-cell landscapes of exhausted T (Tex) cells were screened, and SPP1 + Tex significantly correlated with NKT cell strength. A large amount of RNA sequencing expression data combining the CIBERSORTx tool were labeled with cell types from our single-cell data. Calculating the relative abundance of cell types revealed that a greater proportion of SPP1 + Tex cells was associated with poor prognosis in a cohort of 371 patients with OC. In addition, we showed that the poor prognosis of patients in the high SPP1 + Tex expression group might be related to the suppression of immune checkpoints. Finally, we verified in vitro that SPP1 expression was significantly higher in ovarian cancer cells than in normal ovarian cells. By flow cytometry, knockdown of SPP1 in ovarian cancer cells could promote tumorigenic apoptosis.

Conclusion

This is the first study to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the heterogeneity and clinical significance of Tex cells in OC, which will contribute to the development of more precise and effective therapies.

Precise diagnosis and targeted therapy of nodal T-follicular helper cell lymphoma (T-FHCL)

Nodal T-follicular helper cell lymphoma (T-FHCL) derived from T-follicular helper (Tfh) cell falls into a heterogeneous category of peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL). Due to the limited number of therapeutic regimens and limited first-line efficacy, T-FHCL has a poor prognosis, and there is an urgent need for effective targeted therapies. With advancements in sequencing technologies, especially single-cell sequencing and next-generation sequencing, more specific genetic aberrations characteristic of T-FHCL can be discovered, allowing for precise molecular diagnosis and specific research on novel agents. Many biomarker-targeting agents, used either alone or in combination, have been tested, and they have generally enhanced the therapeutic outcomes of T-FHCL. Histone deacetylase inhibitors achieve significant clinical benefits in the treatment of T-FHCL, especially in combination therapy. Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T-cell) immunotherapies, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and other potential agents merit further study.

Extensive Phenotypic Characterization of T Cells Infiltrating Liver Metastasis from Colorectal Cancer: A Potential Role in Precision Medicine

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide, with liver metastasis being its main cause of death. This study harvested fresh biological material from non-tumor and tumor tissue from 47 patients with CRC liver metastasis after surgery, followed by mechanical cellular extraction and stain-lyse-wash direct immunofluorescence technique. Here, 60 different T-cell populations were characterized by flow cytometry. Tumor samples were also subdivided according to their growth pattern into desmoplastic and non-desmoplastic. When we compared tumor versus non-tumor samples, we observed a significantly lower percentage of T-lymphocyte infiltration in the tumor in which the CD4⁺ T-cell density increased compared to the CD8⁺ T cells. T regulatory cells also increased within the tumor, even with an activated phenotype (HLA-DR⁺). A higher percentage of IL-17-producing cells was present in tumor samples and correlated with the metastasis size. In contrast, we also observed a significant increase in CD8⁺ follicular-like T cells (CD185⁺), suggesting a cytotoxic response to cancer cells. Additionally, most infiltrated T cells exhibit an intermediate activation phenotype (CD25⁺). In conclusion, our results revealed potential new targets and prognostic biomarkers that could take part in an algorithm for personalized medicine approaches improving CRC patients' outcomes.

A pan-cancer analysis of the role of hexokinase II (HK2) in human tumors

More and more evidence show that HK2 is closely related to tumors. But no pan-cancer analysis is available. This paper aimed to explore the potential roles of HK2 across thirty-three tumors based on the datasets of the cancer genome Atlas (TCGA) and gene expression omnibus. HK2 is highly expressed in most tumors and related to the progression of some tumors. HK2 expression was associated with the infiltration of T follicular helper cells for the TCGA tumors of uveal melanoma, breast invasive carcinoma (BRCA), breast invasive carcinoma-luminalA (BRCA-LumA), head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSC), head and neck squamous cell carcinoma with HPV positive (HNSC-HPV⁺), and cancer-associated fibroblasts for the tumors of brain lower grade glioma and stomach adenocarcinoma. Our first pan-cancer study offers a relatively comprehensive understanding of the roles of HK2 in different tumors.

Intratumoral Niches of B Cells and Follicular Helper T Cells, and the Absence of Regulatory T Cells, Associate with Longer Survival in Early-Stage Oral Tongue Cancer Patients

In early oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), the occurrence of clusters between CD20 B cells and CD4 T cells in the invasive margin (IM) can be captured by using the CD20 cluster score, and is positively associated with patient survival. However, the exact contribution of different CD4 T cell subsets, as well as B cell subsets toward patient prognosis is largely unknown. To this end, we studied regulatory T cells ((Treg cells) FOXP3 and CD4), T helper-type 1 cells ((Th1 cells) Tbet and CD4), follicular helper T cells ((Tfh cells) Bcl6 and CD4), B cells (CD20), germinal center B cells ((GC B cells) BCL6 and CD20), and follicular dendritic cells ((fDCs) CD21) for their density, location, and interspacing using multiplex in situ immunofluorescence of 75 treatment-naïve, primary OSCC patients. We observed that Treg, Th1-, Tfh-, and GC B cells, but not fDCs, were abundantly present in the stroma as compared with the tumor, and in the IM as compared with in the center of the tumor. Patients with high CD20 cluster scores had a high density of all three CD4 T cell subsets and GC B cells in the stromal IM as compared with patients with low CD20 cluster scores. Notably, enriched abundance of Tfh cells (HR 0.20, p = 0.04), and diminished abundance of Treg cells (HR 0.10, p = 0.03), together with an overall short distance between Tfh and B cells (HR:0.08, p < 0.01), but not between Treg and B cells (HR 0.43, p = 0.28), were significantly associated with overall survival of patients with OSCC. Our study identified the prognostic value of clusters between CD20 B cells and Tfh cells in the stromal IM of OSCC patients, and enabled an improved understanding of the clinical value of a high CD20 cluster score, which requires validation in larger clinical cohorts.

Proteomics approaches to characterize the immune responses in cancer

Despite the dynamic development of cancer research, annually millions of people die of cancer. The human immune system is the major 'guard' against tumor development. Unfortunately, cancer cells have the ability to evade the immune system and continue to grow. The proper understanding of the intricate immune response in tumorigenesis remains the holy grail of cancer immunology and designing effective immunotherapy. To decode the immune responses in cancer, in recent years, proteomics studies have received considerable attention. Proteomics studies focus on the detection and quantification of proteins, which are the effectors of biological functions, and as such, are proven to reflect the cell state more accurately, in comparison to genomic or transcriptomic studies. In this review, we discuss the proteomics studies applied to characterize the immune responses in cancer and tumor immune microenvironment heterogeneity. Further, we describe emerging single-cell proteomics approaches that have the potential to be applied in cancer immunity studies.

Oncogenic signaling pathway mediated by Notch pathway-related genes induces immunosuppression and immunotherapy resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma

The Notch pathway is a highly conserved signaling pathway involved in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation. However, the relationships between Notch pathway-related genes (NPRGs), immunosuppression, and immunotherapy resistance of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain unclear. Gene expression data and clinical information were extracted from GSE14520, GSE36376, GSE76427, LIRI-JP, TCGA-LIHC, GSE20140, GSE27150, and IMvigor210 datasets. A consensus clustering analysis based on 10 NPRGs was performed to determine the molecular subtypes, and then a notchScore was constructed based on differentially expressed and prognostic genes between molecular subtypes. Two molecular subgroups with significantly distinct survival and immune cell infiltration were identified. Then, a notchScore was constructed to quantify the Notch index of each patient with HCC. Next, we investigated the correlations between the clinical characteristics and the notchScore using logistic regression. Furthermore, multivariate Cox analysis showed that a high notchScore was an independent predictor of poor overall survival (OS) in the TCGA and LIRI-JP datasets and was associated with higher pathological stages. Additionally, a high notchScore was associated with higher immune cells, higher ESTIMATE score, higher immune score, higher stromal score, higher immune checkpoint, and lower tumor purity, which was consistent with the "immunity tidal model theory." Importantly, a high notchScore was sensitive to immunotherapy. Additionally, GSEA indicated that several GO and KEGG items associated with apoptosis, immune-related pathways, and cell cycle signal pathways were significantly enriched in the high notchScore phenotype pathway. Our findings propose that a high notchScore is a prognostic biomarker and correlates with immune infiltration and sensitivity to immunotherapy in HCC.

Apoptosis-Related Gene-Mediated Cell Death Pattern Induces Immunosuppression and Immunotherapy Resistance in Gastric Cancer

Background: Apoptosis is a type of cell death, which can produce abundant mediators to modify the tumor microenvironment. However, relationships between apoptosis, immunosuppression, and immunotherapy resistance of gastric cancer (GC) remain unclear.

Methods: Gene expression data and matching clinical information were extracted from TCGA-STAD, GSE84437, GSE34942, GSE15459, GSE57303, ACRG/GSE62254, GSE29272, GSE26253, and IMvigor210 datasets. A consensus clustering analysis based on six apoptosis-related genes (ARGs) was performed to determine the molecular subtypes, and then an apoptosisScore was constructed based on differentially expressed and prognostic genes between molecular subtypes. Estimate R package was utilized to calculate the tumor microenvironment condition. Kaplan-Meier analysis and ROC curves were performed to further confirm the apoptosisScore efficacy.

Results: Based on six ARGs, two molecular subgroups with significantly distinct survival and immune cell infiltration were identified. Then, an apoptosisScore was built to quantify the apoptosis index of each GC patient. Next, we investigated the correlations between the clinical characteristics and apoptosisScore using logistic regression. Multivariate Cox analysis shows that low apoptosisScore was an independent predictor of poor overall survival in TCGA and ACRG datasets, and was associated with the higher pathological stage. Meanwhile, low apoptosisScore was associated with higher immune cell, higher ESTIMATEScore, higher immuneScore, higher stromalScore, higher immune checkpoint, and lower tumorpurity, which was consistent with the “immunity tidal model theory”. Importantly, low apoptosisScore was sensitive to immunotherapy. In addition, GSEA indicated that several gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes items associated with apoptosis, several immune-related pathways, and JAK–STAT signal pathway were considerably enriched in the low apoptosisScore phenotype pathway.

Conclusion: Our findings propose that low apoptosisScore is a prognostic biomarker, correlated with immune infiltrates, and sensitivity to immunotherapy in GC.

Development and validation of a leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor-1 prognostic signature for lower-grade gliomas

OBJECTIVE

Leukocyte-associated immunoglobulin-like receptor-1 (LAIR-1), is an immunosuppressive receptor, widely expressed by immune cells, but the part of LAIR-1 in glioma progression remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between LAIR-1 expression and the development of lower-grade glioma (LGG) using publicly available data sets.

METHODS

We took advantage of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) to analyze the expression of LAIR-1 in patients with LGG. Second, Kaplan-Meier methods and univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were used to examine the clinical significance of LAIR-1 expression in combination with CGGA databases, and then receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was used to verify the prognostic utility of LAIR-1. Gene ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) were used to explore the function of LAIR-1. Analysis of the correlation with immune infiltration was conducted using the ESTIMATE algorithm and single sample gene set enrichment analysis.

RESULTS

Our results showed that LAIR-1 expression to be positively correlated with malignant clinicopathologic features of LGG. Univariate analysis and multivariate analysis revealed that overexpression of LAIR-1 was correlated with a worse prognosis in patients. A nomogram model combining LAIR-1 was more useful in guiding clinical diagnosis, and functional enrichment analysis showed that malignant development of glioma was closely affiliated with the tumor immune microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that LAIR 1 is a latent marker for determining the prognosis of LGG patients. LAIR 1 may also participate a critical part in TIME of LGG by regulating the infiltration of immune cells, suggesting that LAIR 1 might be used as a therapeutic target to regulate the antitumor immune response.

Identification of immune-related lncRNA panel for predicting immune checkpoint blockade and prognosis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Purpose

Immunotherapy is changing head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) treatment pattern. According to the Chinese Society of Clinical Oncology (CSCO) guidelines, immunotherapy has been deemed as first‐line recommendation for recurrent/metastatic HNSCC, marking that advanced HNSCC has officially entered the era of immunotherapy. Long non‐coding RNAs (lncRNAs) impact every step of cancer immunity. Therefore, reliable immune‐lncRNAs able to accurately predict the immune landscape and survival of HNSCC are crucial to clinical management.

Methods

In the current study, we downloaded the transcriptomic and clinical data of HNSCC from The Cancer Genome Atlas and identified differentially expressed immune‐related lncRNAs (DEir‐lncRNAs). Further then, Cox and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression analyses were performed to identify proper DEir‐lncRNAs to construct optimal risk model. Low‐risk and high‐risk groups were classified based on the optimal cut‐off value generated by the areas under curve for receiver operating characteristic curves (AUC), and Kaplan–Meier survival curves were utilized to validate the prediction model. We then evaluated the model based on the clinical factors, immune cell infiltration, and chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic efficacy between two groups.

Results

In our study, we identified 256 Deir‐lncRNAs in HNSCC. A total of 18 Deir‐lncRNA pairs (consisting of 35 Deir‐lncRNAs) were used to construct a risk model significantly associated with survival of HNSCC. Cox proportional hazard regression analysis confirmed that our risk model could be served as an independent prognostic indicator. Besides, HNSCC patients with low‐risk score significantly enriched of CD8⁺ T cell, and corelated with high chemosensitivity and immunotherapeutic sensitivity.

Conclusion

Our risk model could be served as a promising clinical prediction indicator, effective discoursing of the immune cell infiltration of HNSCC patients, and distinguishing patients who could benefit from chemotherapy and immunotherapy.

Dual Effect of Immune Cells within Tumour Microenvironment: Pro- and Anti-Tumour Effects and Their Triggers

Our body is constantly exposed to pathogens or external threats, but with the immune response that our body can develop, we can fight off and defeat possible attacks or infections. Nevertheless, sometimes this threat comes from an internal factor. Situations such as the existence of a tumour also cause our immune system (IS) to be put on alert. Indeed, the link between immunology and cancer is evident these days, with IS being used as one of the important targets for treating cancer. Our IS is able to eliminate those abnormal or damaged cells found in our body, preventing the uncontrolled proliferation of tumour cells that can lead to cancer. However, in several cases, tumour cells can escape from the IS. It has been observed that immune cells, the extracellular matrix, blood vessels, fat cells and various molecules could support tumour growth and development. Thus, the developing tumour receives structural support, irrigation and energy, among other resources, making its survival and progression possible. All these components that accompany and help the tumour to survive and to grow are called the tumour microenvironment (TME). Given the importance of its presence in the tumour development process, this review will focus on one of the components of the TME: immune cells. Immune cells can support anti-tumour immune response protecting us against tumour cells; nevertheless, they can also behave as pro-tumoural cells, thus promoting tumour progression and survival. In this review, the anti-tumour and pro-tumour immunity of several immune cells will be discussed. In addition, the TME influence on this dual effect will be also analysed.

Identification of Novel Prognostic Signatures for Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma Based on ceRNA Network Construction and Immune Infiltration Analysis

Objective. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) carries significant morbidity and mortality globally and is often resistant to conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has received attention in ccRCC patients as a promising anticancer treatment. Furthermore, competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks are crucial for the occurrence and progression of various tumors. This study was aimed at identifying reliable prognostic signatures and exploring potential mechanisms between ceRNA regulation and immune cell infiltration in ccRCC patients. Methods and Results. Gene expression profiling and clinical information of ccRCC samples were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Through comprehensive bioinformatic analyses, differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs; $n=131$ ), lncRNAs (DElncRNAs; $n=12$ ), and miRNAs (DEmiRNAs; $n=25$ ) were identified to establish ceRNA networks. The CIBERSORT algorithm was applied to calculate the proportion of 22 types of tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) in ccRCC tissues. Subsequently, univariate Cox, Lasso, and multivariate Cox regression analyses were employed to construct ceRNA-related and TIIC-related prognostic signatures. In addition, we explored the relationship between the crucial genes and TIICs via coexpression analysis, which revealed that the interactions between MALAT1, miR-1271-5p, KIAA1324, and follicular helper T cells might be closely correlated with the progression of ccRCC. Ultimately, we preliminarily validated that the potential MALAT1/miR-1271-5p/KIAA1324 axis was consistent with the ceRNA theory by qRT-PCR in the ccRCC cell lines. Conclusion. On the basis of the ceRNA networks and TIICs, we constructed two prognostic signatures with excellent predictive value and explored possible molecular regulatory mechanisms, which might contribute to the improvement of prognosis and individualized treatment for ccRCC patients.

PAX5 haploinsufficiency induced CD8+ T cells dysfunction or exhaustion by high expression of immune inhibitory-related molecules

PURPOSE

PAX5 haploinsufficiency promoting tumorigenesis is related to immune escape. But the mechanisms of PAX5 mutations inducing tumor immune escape have not been clarified. Our aim was to study how PAX5 haploinsufficiency influences effector CD8 + T cells in tumor microenvironment.

METHODS

We estimated the proportions of 22 immune cell types and the expressions of immune inhibitory-related molecules based on gene expression profiles (GEPs) from children's B- acute lymphoblastic leukemia(B-ALL) with PAX5 mutations by CIBERSORT, an established algorithm. We constructed the PAX5 haplodeletion A20 cell lines, built allografted A20 tumor models and evaluated the effect of PAX5 haplodeletion on immune inhibitory-related molecules in the tumor microenvironment (TME).

RESULTS

Our results indicated the percentages of T cells in bone marrow of children's B-ALL with PAX5 mutations were not statistically different from that in bone marrow of B-ALL without PAX5 mutations, except for T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. But a variety of up-regulated immune inhibitory-related molecules in bone marrow of children's B- ALL with PAX5 mutations were identified. By different approaches, we found that several immune inhibitory-related molecules of CD8+ T cells in TME of PAX5 haplodeletion clones such as TIM3, NR4A1 and BATF, were increased significantly compared with that of PAX5 wild type control. The IFN-ɤ of CD8+ T cells in TME of PAX5 haplodeletion tumors was decreased significantly compared with that of PAX5 wild type control.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that PAX5 haploinsufficiency induced CD8+ T cells dysfunction or exhaustion by high expression of TIM3, NR4A1 and BATF in the CD8+ T cells of TME.

Pleurotus sajor-caju-Mediated Synthesis of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles Active against Colon Cancer Cell Lines: A New Era of Herbonanoceutics

Herbal medicines are widely used worldwide and much appreciated because of their fewer side effects and the ability to fight diseases at the root cause. Active ‘phyto’ ingredients require a scientific approach and a mechanism to distribute components at the target site for better therapeutic results. Nanotechnology, on the other hand, has created new hope for cancer treatment but is still far from being proven in clinical settings. This article combines a unique approach to synthesis with the use of Pleurotus sajor-caju, followed by microwave irritation of silver and gold nanoparticles that ensures the capping of the active phyto ingredient and further enhances the effects of nanomedicine to fight colon cancer, thus opening a new era of what we call herbonanoceutics. The article also compares the characteristics and properties of silver (Au) and gold (Ag) nanoparticles synthesized by an in house developed novel microwave-assisted rapid green synthesis method. The as-prepared Ag NPs and Au NPs were compared using ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Our comparative study revealed that both assemblies display face-centred cubic structures (FCCs) and are nanocrystalline in nature. The advantage of the approach was that the sizes of gold and silver were identical in range with a similar distribution pattern. This has helped us to study the activity against colon cancer cell line (HCT-116) without incoherence since size plays a key role in the application. More specifically, morphological changes, cell viability, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the fragmentation of DNA have been further reported to assess better the results obtained with the two metals. Our results suggest that the newly adopted synthesis method may ensure the dual benefits from phyto ingredients which further enhances the effectiveness of advanced nanomedicine.