1
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Cheng D, Tang J, Wang X, Zhang X, Wang S. Effect of aluminum (Al) speciation on erythrocytic antioxidant defense process: Correlations between lipid membrane peroxidation and morphological characteristics. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2018; 157:201-206. [PMID: 29625393 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Al contamination becomes a growing problem in human society. Accumulation of Al in blood could destroy the structure and disorder function of erythrocyte, and finally cause blood diseases. In the present study, AlCl3 and Al(malt)3 are respectively used in the erythrocyte system, in order to investigate the comparative toxic effect on erythrocyte fragility, the influence on cellular biochemical components and lipid peroxidation level. We find that the osmotic fragility, the number of Heinz bodies, the content of MDA and advanced oxidation protein product of the AlCl3 treated erythrocytes were higher than the Al(malt)3 treated erythrocytes at the same concentrations of Al(Ⅲ). The morphological and membrane protein changes of the AlCl3 treated group show superior to the Al(malt)3 treated group. In summary, we conclude that the comparative effect on the erythrocyte between organic aluminum and inorganic aluminum is significantly different, and the prime comparative difference between the toxic effects of both the compounds is oxidative stress. Further research should focus on in vivo experiments to confirm the differential toxicity and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying Al-induced erythrocyte toxicity in order to prevent hematological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dai Cheng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Jinlei Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Xuerui Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Xinyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Food Engineering and Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuo Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
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2
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Mujika JI, Dalla Torre G, Lopez X. Aluminum and Fenton reaction: how can the reaction be modulated by speciation? A computational study using citrate as a test case. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018; 20:16256-16265. [PMID: 29863197 DOI: 10.1039/c8cp02962h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The pro-oxidant ability of aluminum is behind many of the potential toxic effects of this exogenous element in the human organism. Although the overall process is still far from being understood at the molecular level, the well known ability of aluminum to promote the Fenton reaction is mediated through the formation of stable aluminum-superoxide radical complexes. However, the properties of metal complexes are highly influenced by the speciation of the metal. In this paper, we investigate the effect that speciation could have on the pro-oxidant activity of aluminum. We choose citrate as a test case, because it is the main low-molecular-mass chelator of aluminum in blood serum, forming very stable aluminum-citrate complexes. The influence of citrate in the interaction of aluminum with the superoxide radical is investigated, determining how the formation of aluminum-citrate complexes affects the promotion of the Fenton reaction. The results indicate that citrate increases the stability of the aluminum-superoxide complexes through the formation of ternary compounds, and that the Fenton reaction is even more favorable when aluminum is chelated to citrate. Nevertheless, our results demonstrate that overall, citrate may prevent the pro-oxidant activity of aluminum: on one hand, in an excess of citrate, the formation of 1 : 2 aluminum-citrate complexes is expected. On the other hand, the chelation of iron by citrate makes the reduction of iron thermodynamically unfavorable. In summary, the results suggest that citrate can have both a promotion and protective role, depending on subtle factors, such as initial concentration, non-equilibrium behavior and the exchange rate of ligands in the first shell of the metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon I Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain.
| | - Gabriele Dalla Torre
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain. and UCBIO/REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, s/n, Porto, Portugal
| | - Xabier Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain.
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3
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Cheng D, Zhang X, Xu L, Li X, Hou L, Wang C. Protective and prophylactic effects of chlorogenic acid on aluminum-induced acute hepatotoxicity and hematotoxicity in mice. Chem Biol Interact 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Grande-Aztatzi R, Formoso E, Mujika JI, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Phosphorylation promotes Al(iii) binding to proteins: GEGEGSGG as a case study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:7197-207. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp06379e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Aluminum, the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust and one of the key industrial components of our everyday life, has been associated with several neurodegenerative diseases due to its ability to promote neurofilament tangles and β-amyloid peptide aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Grande-Aztatzi
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia Internacional Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Elena Formoso
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia Internacional Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Jon I. Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia Internacional Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Jesus M. Ugalde
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia Internacional Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Xabier Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia Internacional Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
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5
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Exley C, Mold MJ. The binding, transport and fate of aluminium in biological cells. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2015; 30:90-5. [PMID: 25498314 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust and yet, paradoxically, it has no known biological function. Aluminium is biochemically reactive, it is simply that it is not required for any essential process in extant biota. There is evidence neither of element-specific nor evolutionarily conserved aluminium biochemistry. This means that there are no ligands or chaperones which are specific to its transport, there are no transporters or channels to selectively facilitate its passage across membranes, there are no intracellular storage proteins to aid its cellular homeostasis and there are no pathways which evolved to enable the metabolism and excretion of aluminium. Of course, aluminium is found in every compartment of every cell of every organism, from virus through to Man. Herein we have investigated each of the 'silent' pathways and metabolic events which together constitute a form of aluminium homeostasis in biota, identifying and evaluating as far as is possible what is known and, equally importantly, what is unknown about its uptake, transport, storage and excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Exley
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK.
| | - Matthew J Mold
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK
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Luque N, Mujika JI, Formoso E, Lopez X. Aluminum interaction with 2,3-diphosphoglyceric acid. A computational study. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra06796k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Favorable formation of aluminum–2,3-DPG complexes in a variety of forms: 1 : 1, 1 : 2 and ternary complexes with citrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Luque
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Jon I. Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Elena Formoso
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
| | - Xabier Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU
- Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC)
- 20080 Donostia
- Spain
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7
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Luque NB, Mujika JI, Rezabal E, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Mapping the affinity of aluminum(iii) for biophosphates: interaction mode and binding affinity in 1 : 1 complexes. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:20107-19. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp02770a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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8
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Mujika JI, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Aluminum Interaction with Glutamate and α-Ketoglutarate: A Computational Study. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:6680-6. [DOI: 10.1021/jp502724w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. I. Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
(UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - J. M. Ugalde
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
(UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - X. Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
(UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
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9
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Mujika JI, Rezabal E, Mercero JM, Ruipérez F, Costa D, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Aluminium in biological environments: a computational approach. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2014; 9:e201403002. [PMID: 24757505 PMCID: PMC3995234 DOI: 10.5936/csbj.201403002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The increased availability of aluminium in biological environments, due to human intervention in the last century, raises concerns on the effects that this so far “excluded from biology” metal might have on living organisms. Consequently, the bioinorganic chemistry of aluminium has emerged as a very active field of research. This review will focus on our contributions to this field, based on computational studies that can yield an understanding of the aluminum biochemistry at a molecular level. Aluminium can interact and be stabilized in biological environments by complexing with both low molecular mass chelants and high molecular mass peptides. The speciation of the metal is, nonetheless, dictated by the hydrolytic species dominant in each case and which vary according to the pH condition of the medium. In blood, citrate and serum transferrin are identified as the main low molecular mass and high molecular mass molecules interacting with aluminium. The complexation of aluminium to citrate and the subsequent changes exerted on the deprotonation pathways of its tritable groups will be discussed along with the mechanisms for the intake and release of aluminium in serum transferrin at two pH conditions, physiological neutral and endosomatic acidic. Aluminium can substitute other metals, in particular magnesium, in protein buried sites and trigger conformational disorder and alteration of the protonation states of the protein's sidechains. A detailed account of the interaction of aluminium with proteic sidechains will be given. Finally, it will be described how alumnium can exert oxidative stress by stabilizing superoxide radicals either as mononuclear aluminium or clustered in boehmite. The possibility of promotion of Fenton reaction, and production of hydroxyl radicals will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon I Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Elixabete Rezabal
- Laboratoire de Chimie Moleculaire, Department of Chemistry, Ecole Polytechnique and CNRS, 91128 Palaiseau Cedex, France
| | - Jose M Mercero
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Fernando Ruipérez
- POLYMAT, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU. Joxe Mari Korta zentroa, Tolosa Etorbidea 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Dominique Costa
- Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces (UMR 7045), ENSCP Chimie-Paristech, 11 rue P. et M. Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Jesus M Ugalde
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - Xabier Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
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Abstract
Human activities have circumvented the efficient geochemical cycling of aluminium within the lithosphere and therewith opened a door, which was previously only ajar, onto the biotic cycle to instigate and promote the accumulation of aluminium in biota and especially humans. Neither these relatively recent activities nor the entry of aluminium into the living cycle are showing any signs of abating and it is thus now imperative that we understand as fully as possible how humans are exposed to aluminium and the future consequences of a burgeoning exposure and body burden. The aluminium age is upon us and there is now an urgent need to understand how to live safely and effectively with aluminium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Exley
- The Birchall Centre, Lennard-Jones Laboratories, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK.
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11
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Ruipérez F, Mujika J, Ugalde J, Exley C, Lopez X. Pro-oxidant activity of aluminum: Promoting the Fenton reaction by reducing Fe(III) to Fe(II). J Inorg Biochem 2012; 117:118-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2012.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Revised: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Mujika JI, Escribano B, Akhmatskaya E, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Iron- and Aluminum-Loaded Serum Transferrin: Protonation of Tyr188 Is Necessary To Prompt Metal Release. Biochemistry 2012; 51:7017-27. [DOI: 10.1021/bi300584p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. I. Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center, PK 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - B. Escribano
- Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM), Alameda de Mazarredo 14, E-48009
Bilbao, Spain
| | - E. Akhmatskaya
- Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM), Alameda de Mazarredo 14, E-48009
Bilbao, Spain
| | - J. M. Ugalde
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center, PK 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - X. Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU) and Donostia International Physics Center, PK 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
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Mujika JI, Ugalde JM, Lopez X. Aluminum speciation in biological environments. The deprotonation of free and aluminum bound citrate in aqueous solution. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:12465-75. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cp40671c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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14
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A QM/MM study of the complexes formed by aluminum and iron with serum transferrin at neutral and acidic pH. J Inorg Biochem 2011; 105:1446-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2011.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Mailloux RJ, Lemire J, Appanna VD. Hepatic response to aluminum toxicity: dyslipidemia and liver diseases. Exp Cell Res 2011; 317:2231-8. [PMID: 21787768 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 07/08/2011] [Accepted: 07/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) is a metal toxin that has been implicated in the etiology of a number of diseases including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, dialysis encephalopathy, and osteomalacia. Al has been shown to exert its effects by disrupting lipid membrane fluidity, perturbing iron (Fe), magnesium, and calcium homeostasis, and causing oxidative stress. However, the exact molecular targets of aluminum's toxicity have remained elusive. In the present review, we describe how the use of a systems biology approach in cultured hepatoblastoma cells (HepG2) allowed the identification of the molecular targets of Al toxicity. Mitochondrial metabolism is the main site of the toxicological action of Al. Fe-dependent and redox sensitive enzymes in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) are dramatically decreased by Al exposure. In an effort to compensate for diminished mitochondrial function, Al-treated cells stabilize hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) to increase ATP production by glycolysis. Additionally, Al toxicity leads to an increase in intracellular lipid accumulation due to enhanced lipogenesis and a decrease in the β-oxidation of fatty acids. Central to these effects is the alteration of α-ketoglutarate (KG) homeostasis. In Al-exposed cells, KG is preferentially used to quench ROS leading to succinate accumulation and HIF-1α stabilization. Moreover, the channeling of KG to combat oxidative stress leads to a reduction of l-carnitine biosynthesis and a concomitant decrease in fatty acid oxidation. The fluidity and interaction of these metabolic modules and the implications of these findings in liver-related disorders are discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J Mailloux
- Laurentian University, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Canada
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Mujika JI, Ruipérez F, Infante I, Ugalde JM, Exley C, Lopez X. Pro-oxidant Activity of Aluminum: Stabilization of the Aluminum Superoxide Radical Ion. J Phys Chem A 2011; 115:6717-23. [DOI: 10.1021/jp203290b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. I. Mujika
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - F. Ruipérez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - I. Infante
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - J. M. Ugalde
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
| | - C. Exley
- Birchall Centre for Inorganic Chemistry and Materials Science, Keele University, Staffordshire, U.K
| | - X. Lopez
- Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, and Donostia International Physics Center (DIPC), P.K. 1072, 20080 Donostia, Euskadi, Spain
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Murko S, Milačič R, Kralj B, Ščančar J. Convective Interaction Media Monolithic Chromatography with ICPMS and Ultraperformance Liquid Chromatography−Electrospray Ionization MS Detection: A Powerful Tool for Speciation of Aluminum in Human Serum at Normal Concentration Levels. Anal Chem 2009; 81:4929-36. [DOI: 10.1021/ac9006232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simona Murko
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Radmila Milačič
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Bogdan Kralj
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Janez Ščančar
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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18
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Beardmore J, Exley C. Towards a model of non-equilibrium binding of metal ions in biological systems. J Inorg Biochem 2009; 103:205-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2008.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 09/29/2008] [Accepted: 10/06/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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