Potassium fluxes across the blood brain barrier of the cockroach, Periplaneta americana

A cold and quiet brain: mechanisms of insect CNS arrest at low temperatures

Exposure to cold causes insects to enter a chill coma at species-specific temperatures and such temperature sensitivity contributes to geographic distribution and phenology. Coma results from abrupt spreading depolarization (SD) of neural tissue in the integrative centers of the CNS. SD abolishes neuronal signaling and the operation of neural circuits, like an off switch for the CNS. Turning off the CNS by allowing ion gradients to collapse will conserve energy and may offset negative consequences of temporary immobility. SD is modified by prior experience via rapid cold hardening (RCH) or cold acclimation which alter properties of K_v channels, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase and Na⁺/K⁺/2Cl^- cotransporter. The stress hormone octopamine mediates RCH. Future progress depends on developing a more complete understanding of ion homeostasis in and of the insect CNS.

Plasticity in Na+/K+-ATPase thermal kinetics drives variation in the temperature of cold-induced neural shutdown of adult Drosophila melanogaster

Most insects can acclimate to changes in their thermal environment and counteract temperature effects on neuromuscular function. At the critical thermal minimum, a spreading depolarization (SD) event silences central neurons, but the temperature at which this event occurs can be altered through acclimation. SD is triggered by an inability to maintain ion homeostasis in the extracellular space in the brain and is characterized by a rapid surge in extracellular K+ concentration, implicating ion pump and channel function. Here, we focused on the role of the Na+/K+-ATPase specifically in lowering the SD temperature in cold-acclimated Drosophila melanogaster. After first confirming cold acclimation altered SD onset, we investigated the dependency of the SD event on Na+/K+-ATPase activity by injecting the inhibitor ouabain into the head of the flies to induce SD over a range of temperatures. Latency to SD followed the pattern of a thermal performance curve, but cold acclimation resulted in a left-shift of the curve to an extent similar to its effect on the SD temperature. With Na+/K+-ATPase activity assays and immunoblots, we found that cold-acclimated flies have ion pumps that are less sensitive to temperature, but do not differ in their overall abundance in the brain. Combined, these findings suggest a key role for plasticity in Na+/K+-ATPase thermal sensitivity in maintaining central nervous system function in the cold, and more broadly highlight that a single ion pump can be an important determinant of whether insects can respond to their environment to remain active at low temperatures.

The Molecular Physiology and Toxicology of Inward Rectifier Potassium Channels in Insects

Inward rectifier K⁺ (Kir) channels have been studied extensively in mammals, where they play critical roles in health and disease. In insects, Kir channels have recently been found to be key regulators of diverse physiological processes in several tissues. The importance of Kir channels in insects has positioned them to serve as emerging targets for the development of insecticides with novel modes of action. In this article, we provide the first comprehensive review of insect Kir channels, highlighting the rapid progress made in understanding their molecular biology, physiological roles, pharmacology, and toxicology. In addition, we highlight key gaps in our knowledge and suggest directions for future research to advance our understanding of Kir channels and their roles in insect physiology. Further knowledge of their functional roles will also facilitate their exploitation as targets for controlling arthropod pests and vectors of economic, medical, and/or veterinary relevance.

Form and Function of the Vertebrate and Invertebrate Blood-Brain Barriers

The need to protect neural tissue from toxins or other substances is as old as neural tissue itself. Early recognition of this need has led to more than a century of investigation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Many aspects of this important neuroprotective barrier have now been well established, including its cellular architecture and barrier and transport functions. Unsurprisingly, most research has had a human orientation, using mammalian and other animal models to develop translational research findings. However, cell layers forming a barrier between vascular spaces and neural tissues are found broadly throughout the invertebrates as well as in all vertebrates. Unfortunately, previous scenarios for the evolution of the BBB typically adopt a classic, now discredited 'scala naturae' approach, which inaccurately describes a putative evolutionary progression of the mammalian BBB from simple invertebrates to mammals. In fact, BBB-like structures have evolved independently numerous times, complicating simplistic views of the evolution of the BBB as a linear process. Here, we review BBBs in their various forms in both invertebrates and vertebrates, with an emphasis on the function, evolution, and conditional relevance of popular animal models such as the fruit fly and the zebrafish to mammalian BBB research.

Motor patterning, ion regulation and spreading depolarization during CNS shutdown induced by experimental anoxia in Locusta migratoria

Anoxia induces a reversible coma in insects. Coma onset is triggered by the arrest of mechanisms responsible for maintaining membrane ion homeostasis in the CNS, resulting in a wave of neuronal and glial depolarization known as spreading depolarization (SD). Different methods of anoxia influence the behavioural response but their effects on SD are unknown. We investigated the effects of CO₂, N₂, and H₂O on the characteristics of coma induction and recovery in Locusta migratoria. Water immersion delayed coma onset and recovery, likely due to involvement of the tracheal system and the nature of asphyxiation but otherwise resembled N₂ delivery. The main difference between N₂ and CO₂ was that CO₂ hastened onset of neural failure and SD and delayed recovery. In the CNS, this was associated with CO₂ inducing an abrupt and immediate decrease of interstitial pH and increase of extracellular [K⁺]. Recording of the transperineurial potential showed that SD propagation and a postanoxic negativity (PAN) were similar with both gases. The PAN increased with ouabain treatment, likely due to removal of the counteracting electrogenic effect of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, and was inhibited by bafilomycin, a proton pump inhibitor, suggesting that it was generated by the electrogenic effect of a Vacuolar-type ATPase (VA). Muscle fibres depolarized by ~20 mV, which happened more rapidly with CO₂ compared with N₂. Wing muscle motoneurons depolarized nearly completely in two stages, with CO₂ causing more rapid onset and slower recovery than N₂. Other parameters of SD onset and recovery were similar with the two gases. Electrical resistance across the ganglion sheath increased during anoxia and at SD onset. We provisionally attribute this to cell swelling reducing the dimensions of the interstitial pathway from neuropil to the bathing saline. Neuronal membrane resistance decreased abruptly at SD onset indicating opening of an unidentified membrane conductance. Consideration of the intracellular recording relative to the saline suggests that the apical membrane of perineurial glia depolarizes prior to neuron depolarization. We propose that SD is triggered by events at the perineurial sheath and then propagates laterally and more deeply into the neuropil. We conclude that the fundamental nature of SD is not dependent on the method of anoxia however the timing of onset and recovery are influenced; water immersion is complicated by the tracheal system and CO₂ delivery has more rapid and longer lasting effects, associated with severe interstitial acidosis.

Neural shutdown under stress: an evolutionary perspective on spreading depolarization

Neural function depends on maintaining cellular membrane potentials as the basis for electrical signaling. Yet, in mammals and insects, neuronal and glial membrane potentials can reversibly depolarize to zero, shutting down neural function by the process of spreading depolarization (SD) that collapses the ion gradients across membranes. SD is not evident in all metazoan taxa with centralized nervous systems. We consider the occurrence and similarities of SD in different animals and suggest that it is an emergent property of nervous systems that have evolved to control complex behaviors requiring energetically expensive, rapid information processing in a tightly regulated extracellular environment. Whether SD is beneficial or not in mammals remains an open question. However, in insects, it is associated with the response to harsh environments and may provide an energetic advantage that improves the chances of survival. The remarkable similarity of SD in diverse taxa supports a model systems approach to understanding the mechanistic underpinning of human neuropathology associated with migraine, stroke, and traumatic brain injury.

Mechanisms of spreading depolarization in vertebrate and insect central nervous systems

Spreading depolarization (SD) is generated in the central nervous systems of both vertebrates and invertebrates. SD manifests as a propagating wave of electrical depression caused by a massive redistribution of ions. Mammalian SD underlies a continuum of human pathologies from migraine to stroke damage, whereas insect SD is associated with environmental stress-induced neural shutdown. The general cellular mechanisms underlying SD seem to be evolutionarily conserved throughout the animal kingdom. In particular, SD in the central nervous system of Locusta migratoria and Drosophila melanogaster has all the hallmarks of mammalian SD. Locust SD is easily induced and monitored within the metathoracic ganglion (MTG) and can be modulated both pharmacologically and by preconditioning treatments. The finding that the fly brain supports repetitive waves of SD is relatively recent but noteworthy, since it provides a genetically tractable model system. Due to the human suffering caused by SD manifestations, elucidating control mechanisms that could ultimately attenuate brain susceptibility is essential. Here we review mechanisms of SD focusing on the similarities between mammalian and insect systems. Additionally we discuss advantages of using invertebrate model systems and propose insect SD as a valuable model for providing new insights to mammalian SD.

Segment-specific Ca(2+) transport by isolated Malpighian tubules of Drosophila melanogaster: A comparison of larval and adult stages

Haemolymph calcium homeostasis in insects is achieved through the regulation of calcium excretion by Malpighian tubules in two ways: (1) sequestration of calcium within biomineralized granules and (2) secretion of calcium in soluble form within the primary urine. Using the scanning ion-selective electrode technique (SIET), basolateral Ca(2+) transport was measured at the distal, transitional, main and proximal tubular segments of anterior tubules isolated from both 3rd instar larvae and adults of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Basolateral Ca(2+) transport exceeded transepithelial secretion by 800-fold and 11-fold in anterior tubules of larvae and adults, respectively. The magnitude of Ca(2+) fluxes across the distal tubule of larvae and adults were larger than fluxes across the downstream segments by 10 and 40 times, respectively, indicating a dominant role for the distal segment in whole animal Ca(2+) regulation. Basolateral Ca(2+) transport across distal tubules of Drosophila varied throughout the life cycle; Ca(2+) was released by distal tubules of larvae, taken up by distal tubules of young adults and was released once again by tubules of adults ⩾ 168 h post-eclosion. In adults and larvae, SIET measurements revealed sites of both Ca(2+) uptake and Ca(2+) release across the basolateral surface of the distal segment of the same tubule, indicating that Ca(2+) transport is bidirectional. Ca(2+) uptake across the distal segment of tubules of young adults and Ca(2+) release across the distal segment of tubules of older adults was also suggestive of reversible Ca(2+) storage. Our results suggest that the distal tubules of D. melanogaster are dynamic calcium stores which allow efficient haemolymph calcium regulation through active Ca(2+) sequestration during periods of high dietary calcium intake and passive Ca(2+) release during periods of calcium deficiency.

Cell swelling increases the severity of spreading depression in Locusta migratoria

Progressive accumulation of extracellular potassium ions can trigger propagating waves of spreading depression (SD), which are associated with dramatic increases in extracellular potassium levels ([K(+)]o) and arrest in neural activity. In the central nervous system the restricted nature of the extracellular compartment creates an environment that is vulnerable to disturbances in ionic homeostasis. Here we investigate how changes in the size of the extracellular space induced by alterations in extracellular osmolarity affect locust SD. We found that hypotonic exposure increased susceptibility to experimentally induced SD evidenced by a decrease in the latency to onset and period between individual events. Hypertonic exposure was observed to delay the onset of SD or prevent the occurrence altogether. Additionally, the magnitude of extracellular K(+) concentration ([K(+)]o) disturbance during individual SD events was significantly greater and they were observed to propagate more quickly under hypotonic conditions compared with hypertonic conditions. Our results are consistent with a conclusion that hypotonic exposure reduced the size of the extracellular compartment by causing cell swelling and thus facilitated the accumulation of K(+) ions. Lastly, we found that pharmacologically reducing the accumulation of extracellular K(+) using the K(+) channel blocker tetraethylammonium slowed the rate of SD propagation while increasing [K(+)]o through inhibition of the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter increased propagation rates. Overall our findings indicate that treatments or conditions that act to reduce the accumulation of extracellular K(+) help to protect against the development of SD and attenuate the spread of ionic disturbance adding to the evidence that diffusion of K(+) is a leading event during locust SD.

Barrier mechanisms in the Drosophila blood-brain barrier

The invertebrate blood-brain barrier (BBB) field is growing at a rapid pace and, in recent years, studies have shown a physiologic and molecular complexity that has begun to rival its vertebrate counterpart. Novel mechanisms of paracellular barrier maintenance through G-protein coupled receptor signaling were the first demonstrations of the complex adaptive mechanisms of barrier physiology. Building upon this work, the integrity of the invertebrate BBB has recently been shown to require coordinated function of all layers of the compound barrier structure, analogous to signaling between the layers of the vertebrate neurovascular unit. These findings strengthen the notion that many BBB mechanisms are conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates, and suggest that novel findings in invertebrate model organisms will have a significant impact on the understanding of vertebrate BBB functions. In this vein, important roles in coordinating localized and systemic signaling to dictate organism development and growth are beginning to show how the BBB can govern whole animal physiologies. This includes novel functions of BBB gap junctions in orchestrating synchronized neuroblast proliferation, and of BBB secreted antagonists of insulin receptor signaling. These advancements and others are pushing the field forward in exciting new directions. In this review, we provide a synopsis of invertebrate BBB anatomy and physiology, with a focus on insights from the past 5 years, and highlight important areas for future study.

Disruption of the blood-brain barrier exacerbates spreading depression in the locust CNS

In response to cellular stress in the nervous system of the locust (Locusta migratoria) neural function is interrupted in association with ionic disturbances propagating throughout nervous tissue (Spreading depression; SD). The insect blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays a critical role in the regulation of ion levels within the CNS. We investigated how a disruption in barrier function by transient exposure to 3M urea affects locusts' vulnerability to disturbances in ion levels. Repetitive SD was induced by bath application of ouabain and the extracellular potassium concentration ([K(+)]o) within the metathoracic ganglion (MTG) was monitored. Urea treatment increased the susceptibility to ouabain and caused a progressive impairment in the ability to maintain baseline [K(+)]o levels during episodes of repetitive SD. Additionally, using a within animal protocol we demonstrate that waves of SD, induced by high K(+), propagate throughout the MTG faster following disruption of the BBB. Lastly, we show that targeting the BBB of intact animals reduces their ability to sustain neural function during anoxic conditions. Our findings indicate that locust's ability to withstand stress is diminished following a reduction in barrier function likely due to an impairment of the ability of neural tissue to maintain ionic gradients.

K+ absorption by locust gut and inhibition of ileal K+ and water transport by FGLamide allatostatins

The Scanning Ion-Selective Electrode Technique (SIET) was utilized for the first time in Locusta migratoria to characterize K+ transport along the digestive tract and to determine the effect of two locust FGLamide allatostatins (FGLa/ASTs) on K+ transport: a previously sequenced FGLa/AST from Schistocerca gregaria (Scg-AST-6; ARPYSFGL-NH2) and a newly sequenced FGLa/AST from L. migratoria (Locmi-FGLa/AST-2; LPVYNFGL-NH2). Regional differences in K+ fluxes along the gut were evident, where K+ efflux in vitro (or absorption into the hemolymph in vivo) was greatest at the anterior ileum, and lowest at the colon. Ileal K+ efflux was inhibited by both Scg-AST-6 and Locmi-FGLa/AST-2, with maximal inhibition at 10-10 and 10-11 M, respectively. Both FGLa/ASTs also inhibited cAMP-stimulated K+ efflux from the ileum. Locmi-FGLa/AST-2 also inhibited efflux of water across the ileum. Locusts are terrestrial insects living in dry climates, risking desiccation and making water conservation a necessity. The results suggest that FGLa/ASTs may be acting as diuretics by increasing K+ excretion and therefore increasing water excretion. Thus, it is likely that FGLa/ASTs are involved in the control of hemolymph water and ion levels during feeding and digestion, to help the locust deal with the excess K+ load (and subsequently fluid) when the meal is processed.

Pharmacological blockade of gap junctions induces repetitive surging of extracellular potassium within the locust CNS

The maintenance of cellular ion homeostasis is crucial for optimal neural function and thus it is of great importance to understand its regulation. Glial cells are extensively coupled by gap junctions forming a network that is suggested to serve as a spatial buffer for potassium (K(+)) ions. We have investigated the role of glial spatial buffering in the regulation of extracellular K(+) concentration ([K(+)]o) within the locust metathoracic ganglion by pharmacologically inhibiting gap junctions. Using K(+)-sensitive microelectrodes, we measured [K(+)]o near the ventilatory neuropile while simultaneously recording the ventilatory rhythm as a model of neural circuit function. We found that blockade of gap junctions with either carbenoxolone (CBX), 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid (18β-GA) or meclofenamic acid (MFA) reliably induced repetitive [K(+)]o surges and caused a progressive impairment in the ability to maintain baseline [K(+)]o levels throughout the treatment period. We also show that a low dose of CBX that did not induce surging activity increased the vulnerability of locust neural tissue to spreading depression (SD) induced by Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase inhibition with ouabain. CBX pre-treatment increased the number of SD events induced by ouabain and hindered the recovery of [K(+)]o back to baseline levels between events. Our results suggest that glial spatial buffering through gap junctions plays an essential role in the regulation of [K(+)]o under normal conditions and also contributes to a component of [K(+)]o clearance following physiologically elevated levels of [K(+)]o.