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El Khoury S, Gauthier J, Mercier PL, Moïse S, Giovenazzo P, Derome N. Honeybee gut bacterial strain improved survival and gut microbiota homeostasis in Apis mellifera exposed in vivo to clothianidin. Microbiol Spectr 2024; 12:e0057824. [PMID: 39189755 PMCID: PMC11448422 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00578-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Pesticides are causing honeybee mortality worldwide. Research carried out on honeybees indicates that application of pesticides has a significant impact on the core gut community, which ultimately leads to an increase in the growth of harmful pathogens. Disturbances caused by pesticides also affect the way bacterial members interact, which results in gut microbial dysbiosis. Administration of beneficial microbes has been previously demonstrated to be effective in treating or preventing disease in honeybees. The objective of this study was to measure under in vivo conditions the ability of two bacterial strains (the Enterobacter sp. and Pantoea sp.) isolated from honeybee gut to improve survival and mitigate gut microbiota dysbiosis in honeybees exposed to a sublethal clothianidin dose (0.1 ppb). Both gut bacterial strains were selected for their ability to degrade clothianidin in vitro regardless of their host-microbe interaction characteristics (e.g., beneficial, neutral, or harmful). To this end, we conducted cage trials on 4- to 6-day-old newly emerging honeybees. During microbial administration, we jointly monitored the taxonomic distribution and activity level of bacterial symbionts quantifying 16S rRNA transcripts. First, curative administration of the Pantoea sp. strain significantly improved the survival of clothianidin-exposed honeybees compared to sugar control bees (i.e., supplemented with sugar [1:1]). Second, curative administration of the Enterobacter sp. strain significantly mitigated the clothianidin-induced dysbiosis observed in the midgut structural network, but without improving survival. IMPORTANCE The present work suggests that administration of bacterial strains isolated from honeybee gut may promote recovery of gut microbiota homeostasis after prolonged clothianidin exposure, while improving survival. This study highlights that gut bacterial strains hold promise for developing efficient microbial formulations to mitigate environmental pesticide exposure in honeybee colonies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah El Khoury
- Université Laval, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Québec, Canada
- Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Jeff Gauthier
- Université Laval, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Québec, Canada
- Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Pierre Luc Mercier
- Université Laval, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Québec, Canada
- Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
| | - Stéphane Moïse
- INRS, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Nicolas Derome
- Université Laval, Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Québec, Canada
- Département de Biologie, Université Laval, Québec, Canada
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2
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Tejerina MR, Cabana MJ, Enríquez PA, Benítez-Ahrendts MR, Fonseca MI. Bacterial Strains Isolated from Stingless Bee Workers Inhibit the Growth of Apis mellifera Pathogens. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:106. [PMID: 38418777 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-024-03618-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Apis mellifera bees are an important resource for the local economy of various regions in Argentina and the maintenance of natural ecosystems. In recent years, different alternatives have been investigated to avoid the reduction or loss of colonies caused by pathogens and parasites such as Ascosphaera apis, Aspergillus flavus, and Paenibacillus larvae. We focused on bacterial strains isolated from the intestine of native stingless bees, to elucidate their antagonistic effect on diseases of A. mellifera colonies. For this purpose, worker bees of the species Tetragonisca fiebrigi, Plebeia spp., and Scaptotrigona jujuyensis were captured from the entrance to tree hives and transported to the laboratory, where their intestines were extracted. Twenty bacterial colonies were isolated from the intestines, and those capable of inhibiting enterobacteria in vitro and producing organic acids, proteases, and chitinases were selected. Four genera, Levilactobacillus, Acetobacter, Lactiplantibacillus, and Pantoea, were selected and identified by the molecular marker that codes for the 16S rRNA gene. For inhibition assays, cell suspensions and cell-free suspensions were performed. All treatments showed significant antibacterial effects, in comparison with the controls, against P. larvae and antifungal effects against A. apis and A. flavus. However, the mechanisms by which these bacteria inhibit the growth of these pathogens were not studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Raúl Tejerina
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Sanidad Apícola y Meliponícola, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina.
- Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOA)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Avenida Bolivia 1239, San Salvador de Jujuy, Jujuy, Argentina.
| | - María José Cabana
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Sanidad Apícola y Meliponícola, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina
| | - Pablo Adrián Enríquez
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Sanidad Apícola y Meliponícola, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina
| | - Marcelo Rafael Benítez-Ahrendts
- Cátedra de Microbiología, Sanidad Apícola y Meliponícola, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Alberdi 47, 4600, Jujuy, Argentina
- Instituto de Ecorregiones Andinas (INECOA)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Avenida Bolivia 1239, San Salvador de Jujuy, Jujuy, Argentina
| | - María Isabel Fonseca
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Químicas y Naturales. Instituto de Biotecnología "Dra. María Ebe Reca" (INBIOMIS), Laboratorio de Biotecnología Molecular, Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Misiones, Argentina
- CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Daisley BA, Pitek AP, Torres C, Lowery R, Adair BA, Al KF, Niño B, Burton JP, Allen-Vercoe E, Thompson GJ, Reid G, Niño E. Delivery mechanism can enhance probiotic activity against honey bee pathogens. THE ISME JOURNAL 2023; 17:1382-1395. [PMID: 37311937 PMCID: PMC10432525 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-023-01422-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Managed honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations play a crucial role in supporting pollination of food crops but are facing unsustainable colony losses, largely due to rampant disease spread within agricultural environments. While mounting evidence suggests that select lactobacilli strains (some being natural symbionts of honey bees) can protect against multiple infections, there has been limited validation at the field-level and few methods exist for applying viable microorganisms to the hive. Here, we compare how two different delivery systems-standard pollen patty infusion and a novel spray-based formulation-affect supplementation of a three-strain lactobacilli consortium (LX3). Hives in a pathogen-dense region of California are supplemented for 4 weeks and then monitored over a 20-week period for health outcomes. Results show both delivery methods facilitate viable uptake of LX3 in adult bees, although the strains do not colonize long-term. Despite this, LX3 treatments induce transcriptional immune responses leading to sustained decreases in many opportunistic bacterial and fungal pathogens, as well as selective enrichment of core symbionts including Bombilactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Bartonella spp. These changes are ultimately associated with greater brood production and colony growth relative to vehicle controls, and with no apparent trade-offs in ectoparasitic Varroa mite burdens. Furthermore, spray-LX3 exerts potent activities against Ascosphaera apis (a deadly brood pathogen) likely stemming from in-hive dispersal differences, whereas patty-LX3 promotes synergistic brood development via unique nutritional benefits. These findings provide a foundational basis for spray-based probiotic application in apiculture and collectively highlight the importance of considering delivery method in disease management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan A Daisley
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Andrew P Pitek
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Christina Torres
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Robin Lowery
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Bethany A Adair
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Kait F Al
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Bernardo Niño
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Jeremy P Burton
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Emma Allen-Vercoe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Graham J Thompson
- Department of Biology, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Gregor Reid
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Elina Niño
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
- University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, Oakland, CA, 95618, USA.
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Whole-Genome Sequences of a Lactobacillus melliventris Strain and Its Myovirus Temperate Phage, phIBH004, Isolated from the Digestive Tract of Apis mellifera in Switzerland. Microbiol Resour Announc 2023; 12:e0003623. [PMID: 36840591 PMCID: PMC10019154 DOI: 10.1128/mra.00036-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The complete genome sequence of Lactobacillus melliventris strain IBH004, isolated from the gut of a honeybee worker (Apis mellifera) and containing two plasmids and a temperate phage, was determined using hybrid assembly of Oxford Nanopore and Illumina reads. Phage-sequence relationships were identified from the coding sequences, and a proteomic tree was constructed.
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Effect of Ascosphaera apis Infestation on the Activities of Four Antioxidant Enzymes in Asian Honey Bee Larval Guts. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12010206. [PMID: 36671067 PMCID: PMC9854781 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12010206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Ascosphaera apis infects exclusively bee larvae and causes chalkbrood, a lethal fungal disease that results in a sharp reduction in adult bees and colony productivity. However, little is known about the effect of A. apis infestation on the activities of antioxidant enzymes in bee larvae. Here, A. apis spores were purified and used to inoculate Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) larvae, followed by the detection of the host survival rate and an evaluation of the activities of four major antioxidant enzymes. At 6 days after inoculation (dpi) with A. apis spores, obvious symptoms of chalkbrood disease similar to what occurs in Apis mellifera larvae were observed. PCR identification verified the A. apis infection of A. cerana larvae. Additionally, the survival rate of larvae inoculated with A. apis was high at 1−2 dpi, which sharply decreased to 4.16% at 4 dpi and which reached 0% at 5 dpi, whereas that of uninoculated larvae was always high at 1~8 dpi, with an average survival rate of 95.37%, indicating the negative impact of A. apis infection on larval survival. As compared with those in the corresponding uninoculated groups, the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities in the 5- and 6-day-old larval guts in the A. apis−inoculated groups were significantly decreased (p < 0.05) and the glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity in the 4- and 5-day-old larval guts was significantly increased (p < 0.05), which suggests that the inhibition of SOD and CAT activities and the activation of GST activity in the larval guts was caused by A. apis infestation. In comparison with that in the corresponding uninoculated groups, the polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity was significantly increased (p < 0.05) in the 5-day-old larval gut but significantly reduced (p < 0.01) in the 6-day-old larval gut, indicating that the PPO activity in the larval guts was first enhanced and then suppressed. Our findings not only unravel the response of A. cerana larvae to A. apis infestation from a biochemical perspective but also offer a valuable insight into the interaction between Asian honey bee larvae and A. apis.
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Shell WA, Rehan SM. Comparative metagenomics reveals expanded insights into intra- and interspecific variation among wild bee microbiomes. Commun Biol 2022; 5:603. [PMID: 35715496 PMCID: PMC9205906 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03535-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The holobiont approach proposes that species are most fully understood within the context of their associated microbiomes, and that both host and microbial community are locked in a mutual circuit of co-evolutionary selection. Bees are an ideal group for this approach, as they comprise a critical group of pollinators that contribute to both ecological and agricultural health worldwide. Metagenomic analyses offer comprehensive insights into an organism’s microbiome, diet, and viral load, but remain largely unapplied to wild bees. Here, we present metagenomic data from three species of carpenter bees sampled from around the globe, representative of the first ever carpenter bee core microbiome. Machine learning, co-occurrence, and network analyses reveal that wild bee metagenomes are unique to host species. Further, we find that microbiomes are likely strongly affected by features of their local environment, and feature evidence of plant pathogens previously known only in honey bees. Performing the most comprehensive comparative analysis of bee microbiomes to date we discover that microbiome diversity is inversely proportional to host species social complexity. Our study helps to establish some of the first wild bee hologenomic data while offering powerful empirical insights into the biology and health of vital pollinators. Global wild bee metagenomes provide insights into microbiome, sociality and pollinator health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wyatt A Shell
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Sandra M Rehan
- Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Bartlett LJ. Frontiers in effective control of problem parasites in beekeeping. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2022; 17:263-272. [PMID: 35309040 PMCID: PMC8924282 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Demand for better control of certain parasites in managed western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) remains apparent amongst beekeepers in both Europe and North America, and is of widespread public, scientific, and agricultural concern. Academically, interest from numerous fields including veterinary sciences has led to many exemplary reviews of the parasites of honey bees and the treatment options available. However, summaries of current research frontiers in treating both novel and long-known parasites of managed honey bees are lacking. This review complements the currently comprehensive body of literature summarizing the effectiveness of parasite control in managed honey bees by outlining where significant gaps in development, implementation, and uptake lie, including integration into IPM frameworks and separation of cultural, biological, and chemical controls. In particular, I distinguish where challenges in identifying appropriate controls exist in the lab compared to where we encounter hurdles in technology transfer due to regulatory, economic, or cultural contexts. I overview how exciting frontiers in honey bee parasite control research are clearly demonstrated by the abundance of recent publications on novel control approaches, but also caution that temperance must be levied on the applied end of the research engine in believing that what can be achieved in a laboratory research environment can be quickly and effectively marketed for deployment in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis J Bartlett
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Functional Properties and Antimicrobial Activity from Lactic Acid Bacteria as Resources to Improve the Health and Welfare of Honey Bees. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13030308. [PMID: 35323606 PMCID: PMC8953987 DOI: 10.3390/insects13030308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Honey bees play a pivotal role in the sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity. Many factors including parasites, pathogens, pesticide residues, forage losses, and poor nutrition have been proposed to explain honey bee colony losses. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of honey bees and their role has been consistently reported in the literature. In recent years, there have been numerous scientific evidence that the intestinal microbiota plays an essential role in honey bee health. Management strategies, based on supplementation of the gut microbiota with probiotics, may be important to increase stress tolerance and disease resistance. In this review, recent scientific advances on the use of LABs as microbial supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. Abstract Honey bees (Apis mellifera) are agriculturally important pollinators. Over the past decades, significant losses of wild and domestic bees have been reported in many parts of the world. Several biotic and abiotic factors, such as change in land use over time, intensive land management, use of pesticides, climate change, beekeeper’s management practices, lack of forage (nectar and pollen), and infection by parasites and pathogens, negatively affect the honey bee’s well-being and survival. The gut microbiota is important for honey bee growth and development, immune function, protection against pathogen invasion; moreover, a well-balanced microbiota is fundamental to support honey bee health and vigor. In fact, the structure of the bee’s intestinal bacterial community can become an indicator of the honey bee’s health status. Lactic acid bacteria are normal inhabitants of the gastrointestinal tract of many insects, and their presence in the honey bee intestinal tract has been consistently reported in the literature. In the first section of this review, recent scientific advances in the use of LABs as probiotic supplements in the diet of honey bees are summarized and discussed. The second section discusses some of the mechanisms by which LABs carry out their antimicrobial activity against pathogens. Afterward, individual paragraphs are dedicated to Chalkbrood, American foulbrood, European foulbrood, Nosemosis, and Varroosis as well as to the potentiality of LABs for their biological control.
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Probiotic Properties and Potentiality of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Strains for the Biological Control of Chalkbrood Disease. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7050379. [PMID: 34066127 PMCID: PMC8151994 DOI: 10.3390/jof7050379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ascosphaera apis is an entomopathogenic fungus that affects honeybees. In stressful conditions, this fungus (due not only to its presence, but also to the combination of other biotic and abiotic stressors) can cause chalkbrood disease. In recent years, there has been increasing attention paid towards the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in the honeybees' diets to improve their health, productivity and ability to resist infections by pathogenic microorganisms. The screening of 22 strains of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum, isolated from the gastrointestinal tracts of honeybees and beebread, led to the selection of five strains possessing high antagonistic activity against A. apis. This study focused on the antifungal activity of these five strains against A. apis DSM 3116 and DSM 3117 using different matrices: cell lysate, broth culture, cell-free supernatant and cell pellet. In addition, some functional properties and the antioxidant activity of the five L. plantarum strains were evaluated. All five strains exhibited high antagonistic activity against A. apis, good surface cellular properties (extracellular polysaccharide (EPS) production and biofilm formation) and antioxidant activity. Although preliminary, these results are encouraging, and in future investigations, the effectiveness of these bacteria as probiotics in honeybee nutrition will be tested in vivo in the context of an eco-friendly strategy for the biological control of chalkbrood disease.
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Nowak A, Szczuka D, Górczyńska A, Motyl I, Kręgiel D. Characterization of Apis mellifera Gastrointestinal Microbiota and Lactic Acid Bacteria for Honeybee Protection-A Review. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030701. [PMID: 33809924 PMCID: PMC8004194 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous honeybee (Apis mellifera) products, such as honey, propolis, and bee venom, are used in traditional medicine to prevent illness and promote healing. Therefore, this insect has a huge impact on humans’ way of life and the environment. While the population of A. mellifera is large, there is concern that widespread commercialization of beekeeping, combined with environmental pollution and the action of bee pathogens, has caused significant problems for the health of honeybee populations. One of the strategies to preserve the welfare of honeybees is to better understand and protect their natural microbiota. This paper provides a unique overview of the latest research on the features and functioning of A. mellifera. Honeybee microbiome analysis focuses on both the function and numerous factors affecting it. In addition, we present the characteristics of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as an important part of the gut community and their special beneficial activities for honeybee health. The idea of probiotics for honeybees as a promising tool to improve their health is widely discussed. Knowledge of the natural gut microbiota provides an opportunity to create a broad strategy for honeybee vitality, including the development of modern probiotic preparations to use instead of conventional antibiotics, environmentally friendly biocides, and biological control agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Nowak
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Daria Szczuka
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
| | - Anna Górczyńska
- Faculty of Law and Administration, University of Lodz, Kopcińskiego 8/12, 90-232 Łódź, Poland;
| | - Ilona Motyl
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
| | - Dorota Kręgiel
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, Lodz University of Technology, Wólczańska 171/173, 90-924 Łódź, Poland; (D.S.); (I.M.); (D.K.)
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