1
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Xu G, Yang S. Evolution of orphan and atypical histidine kinases and response regulators for microbial signaling diversity. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 275:133635. [PMID: 38964677 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.133635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Two-component signaling systems (TCS) are the predominant means of microbes for sensing and responding to environmental stimuli. Typically, TCS is comprised of a sensor histidine kinase (HK) and a cognate response regulator (RR), which might have coevolved together. They usually involve the phosphoryl transfer signaling mechanism. However, there are also some orphan and atypical HK and RR homologs, and their evolutionary origins are still not very clear. They are not associated with cognate pairs or lack the conserved residues for phosphoryl transfer, but they could receive or respond to signals from other regulators. The objective of this study is to reveal the evolutionary history of these orphan and atypical HK and RR homologs. Structural, domain, sequence, and phylogenetic analyses indicated that their evolution process might undergo gene duplication, divergence, and domain shuffling. Meanwhile, lateral gene transfer might also be involved for their gene distribution. Evolution of orphan and atypical HK and RR homologs have increased their signaling diversity, which could be helpful for microbial adaption in complex environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gangming Xu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China.
| | - Suiqun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
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2
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Lei Y, Asamizu S, Ishizuka T, Onaka H. Regulation of Multidrug Efflux Pumps by TetR Family Transcriptional Repressor Negatively Affects Secondary Metabolism in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0182222. [PMID: 36790176 PMCID: PMC10056966 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01822-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptomyces spp. are well-known producers of bioactive secondary metabolites (SMs) that serve as pharmaceutical agents. In addition to their ability to produce SMs, Streptomyces spp. have evolved diverse membrane transport systems to protect cells against antibiotics produced by itself or other microorganisms. We previously screened mutants of Streptomyces coelicolor that show a phenotype of reduced undecylprodigiosin (RED) production in a combined-culture with Tsukamurella pulmonis. Here, we identified a point mutation, which reduced RED production, by performing genome resequencing and genetic complementation. We found that inactivation of the sco1718 gene encoding the TetR family transcriptional regulator (TFR) produced a deficient phenotype for several SMs in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). In the genome of S. coelicolor A3(2), two other sets of TFR and two-component ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter genes (sco4358-4360 and sco5384-5382) were found which had similar effects on the phenotype for both secondary metabolism and antibiotic resistance. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR experiments demonstrated that TFRs repressed the expression of each adjacent two-component ABC transporter genes by binding to the operator sequence. Notably, the Δsco1718 mutant showed increased resistance to several antibiotics of other actinomycete origin. Our results imply the switching of cell metabolism to direct offense (antibiotic production) or defense (efflux pump activation) using costly and limited quantities of cell energy sources (e.g., ATP) in the soil ecosystem. IMPORTANCE The bacterial metabolic potential to synthesize diverse secondary metabolites in the environment has been revealed by recent (meta)genomics of both unculturable and culturable bacteria. These studies imply that bacteria are continuously exposed to harmful chemical compounds in the environment. Streptomyces spp. contain antibiotic efflux pumps and SM biosynthetic gene clusters. However, the mechanism by which soil bacteria, including Streptomyces, survive against toxic compounds in the environment remains unclear. Here, we identified three sets of TFR-ABC transporter genes in Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). We found that each TFR controlled the expression of respective ABC transporter, and the expression of all ABC transporters negatively impacted SM production and increased antibiotic resistance. Notably, bioinformatic analysis indicated that these TFR-ABC transporter gene sets are highly conserved and widely distributed in the genome of Streptomyces species, indicating the importance of systematic regulation that directs antibiotic production and xenobiotic excretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukun Lei
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shumpei Asamizu
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Collaborative Research Institute for Innovative Microbiology (CRIIM), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takumi Ishizuka
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Onaka
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- Collaborative Research Institute for Innovative Microbiology (CRIIM), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Jin S, Hui M, Lu Y, Zhao Y. An overview on the two-component systems of Streptomyces coelicolor. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:78. [PMID: 36645528 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03522-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The two-component system (TCS) found in various organisms is a regulatory system, which is involved in the response by the organism to stimuli, thereby regulating the internal behavior of the cell. It is commonly found in prokaryotes and is an important signaling system in bacteria. TCSs are involved in the regulation of physiological and morphological differentiation of the industrially important microbes from the genus Streptomyces, which produce a vast array of bioactive secondary metabolites (SMs). Genetic engineering of TCSs can substantially increase the yield of target SMs, which is valuable for industrial-scale production. Research on TCS has mainly been completed in the model strain Streptomyces coelicolor. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the functional identification and elucidation of the regulatory mechanisms of various TCSs in S. coelicolor, with a focus on their roles in the biosynthesis of important SMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangping Jin
- College of Bioengineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, 450001, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ming Hui
- College of Bioengineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, 450001, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yinhua Lu
- College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, 100 Guilin Road, 200234, Shanghai, China.
| | - Yawei Zhao
- College of Bioengineering, Henan University of Technology, 100 Lianhua Street, 450001, Zhengzhou, China.
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4
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Wang R, Cao Y, Kong F, Hou B, Zhao J, Kang Y, Ye J, Wu H, Zhang H. Developmental regulator RamRsl controls both morphological development and lincomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces lincolnensis. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:400-409. [DOI: doi.org/10.1111/jam.15568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Aims
Assessing the role of ramRsl, a gene absent in a lincomycin over-producing strain, in the regulation of morphological development and lincomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces lincolnensis.
Methods and Results
The gene ramRsl was deleted from the wild-type strain NRRL 2936 and the ΔramR mutant strain was characterized by a slower growth rate and a delayed morphological differentiation compared to the original strain NRRL 2936. Furthermore, the ΔramR produced 2.6-fold more lincomycin than the original strain, and consistently the level of expression of all lincomycin cluster located genes was enhanced at 48 and 96 h in the ΔramR. Complementation of ΔramR with an intact copy of ramRsl restored all wild-type features, whereas the over-expression of ramRsl led to a reduction of 33% of the lincomycin yield. Furthermore, the level of expression of glnR, bldA and SLCG_2919, three of known lincomycin biosynthesis regulators, was lower in the ΔramR than in the original strain at the early stage of fermentation and we demonstrated, using electrophoretic mobility shift assay and XylE reporter assay, that glnR is a novel direct target of RamR.
Conclusions
Altogether, these results indicated that, beyond promoting the morphological development, RamR regulates negatively lincomycin biosynthesis and positively the expression of the nitrogen regulator GlnR.
Significance and Impact of the Study
We demonstrated that RamR plays a negative role in the regulation of lincomycin biosynthesis in S. lincolnensis. Interestingly, the deletion of this gene in other antibiotic-producing Streptomyces strains might also increase their antibiotic-producing abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruida Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Yuan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Fanjing Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Bingbing Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
- Department of Applied Biology East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Jiaqi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Yajing Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Jiang Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
- Department of Applied Biology East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Haizhen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
- Department of Applied Biology East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
| | - Huizhan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
- Department of Applied Biology East China University of Science and Technology Shanghai China
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Wang R, Cao Y, Kong F, Hou B, Zhao J, Kang Y, Ye J, Wu H, Zhang H. Developmental regulator RamR sl controls both morphological development and lincomycin biosynthesis in Streptomyces lincolnensis. J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:400-409. [PMID: 35384192 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Assessing the role of ramRsl , a gene absent in a lincomycin over-producing strain, in the regulation of morphological development and lincomycin biosynthesis in S. lincolnensis. METHODS AND RESULTS The gene ramRsl was deleted from the wild type strain NRRL 2936 and the ΔramR mutant strain was characterized by a slower growth rate and a delayed morphological differentiation compared to the original strain NRRL 2936. Furthermore, the ΔramR produced 2.6-fold more lincomycin than the original strain, and consistently the level of expression of all lincomycin cluster located genes was enhanced at 48 h and 96 h in the ΔramR. Complementation of ΔramR with an intact copy of ramRsl restored all wild type features whereas the over-expression of ramRsl led to a reduction of 33% of the lincomycin yield. Furthermore, the level of expression of glnR, bldA, and SLCG_2919, three of known lincomycin biosynthesis regulators, was lower in the ΔramR than in the original strain at the early stage of fermentation and we demonstrated, using EMSA and XylE reporter assay, that glnR is a novel direct target of RamR. CONCLUSIONS Altogether these results indicated that, beyond promoting the morphological development, RamR regulates negatively lincomycin biosynthesis and positively the expression of the nitrogen regulator GlnR. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY We demonstrated that RamR plays a negative role in the regulation of lincomycin biosynthesis in S. lincolnensis. Interestingly, the deletion of this gene in other antibiotic producing Streptomyces strains might also increase their antibiotic producing abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruida Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuan Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Fanjing Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Bingbing Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yajing Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiang Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Haizhen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Huizhan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Department of Applied Biology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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Identification of the cognate response regulator of the orphan histidine kinase OhkA involved in both secondary metabolism and morphological differentiation in Streptomyces coelicolor. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:5905-5914. [PMID: 34287659 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11442-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the model actinomycete strain, Streptomyces coelicolor, an orphan histidine kinase (HK) named OhkA (encoded by SCO1596), which belongs to bacterial two-component regulatory systems (TCSs), has been identified as being involved in the regulation of both antibiotic biosynthesis and morphological development. However, its cognate response regulator (RR) remains unknown due to its isolated genetic location on the genome, which impedes the elucidation of the mechanism underlying OhkA-mediated regulation. Here, we identified the orphan RR OrrA (encoded by SCO3008) as the cognate RR of OhkA according to mutant phenotypic changes, transcriptomics analysis, and bacterial two-hybrid experiment. Considering that the partner RR of the orphan HK is also orphan, a library of mutants with in-frame individual deletion of these functionally unknown orphan RR-encoding genes were generated. Through phenotypic analysis, it was found that the ∆orrA mutant exhibited similar phenotypic changes as that of the ∆ohkA mutant, showing increased production of actinorhodin (ACT) and undecylprodigiosin (RED), and pink colony surface. Further transcriptomics analysis showed these two mutants exhibited highly similar transcriptomics profiles. Finally, the direct interaction between OhkA and OrrA was revealed by bacterial two-hybrid system. The identification of the partner RR of OhkA lays a good foundation for an in-depth elucidation of the molecular mechanism underlying OhkA-mediated regulation of development and antibiotic biosynthesis in Streptomyces. KEY POINTS: • OrrA was identified as the partner RR of the orphan histidine kinase OhkA. • The ∆orrA and ∆ohkA mutants showed similar phenotype and transcriptomic profiling. • Specific interaction of OrrA and OhkA was revealed by bacterial two-hybrid system.
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7
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Identification of Uncharacterized Components of Prokaryotic Immune Systems and Their Diverse Eukaryotic Reformulations. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:JB.00365-20. [PMID: 32868406 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00365-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide-activated effector deployment, prototyped by interferon-dependent immunity, is a common mechanistic theme shared by immune systems of several animals and prokaryotes. Prokaryotic versions include CRISPR-Cas with the CRISPR polymerase domain, their minimal variants, and systems with second messenger oligonucleotide or dinucleotide synthetase (SMODS). Cyclic or linear oligonucleotide signals in these systems help set a threshold for the activation of potentially deleterious downstream effectors in response to invader detection. We establish such a regulatory mechanism to be a more general principle of immune systems, which can also operate independently of such messengers. Using sensitive sequence analysis and comparative genomics, we identify 12 new prokaryotic immune systems, which we unify by this principle of threshold-dependent effector activation. These display regulatory mechanisms paralleling physiological signaling based on 3'-5' cyclic mononucleotides, NAD+-derived messengers, two- and one-component signaling that includes histidine kinase-based signaling, and proteolytic activation. Furthermore, these systems allowed the identification of multiple new sensory signal sensory components, such as a tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) scaffold predicted to recognize NAD+-derived signals, unreported versions of the STING domain, prokaryotic YEATS domains, and a predicted nucleotide sensor related to receiver domains. We also identify previously unrecognized invader detection components and effector components, such as prokaryotic versions of the Wnt domain. Finally, we show that there have been multiple acquisitions of unidentified STING domains in eukaryotes, while the TPR scaffold was incorporated into the animal immunity/apoptosis signal-regulating kinase (ASK) signalosome.IMPORTANCE Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic immune systems face the dangers of premature activation of effectors and degradation of self-molecules in the absence of an invader. To mitigate this, they have evolved threshold-setting regulatory mechanisms for the triggering of effectors only upon the detection of a sufficiently strong invader signal. This work defines general templates for such regulation in effector-based immune systems. Using this, we identify several previously uncharacterized prokaryotic immune mechanisms that accomplish the regulation of downstream effector deployment by using nucleotide, NAD+-derived, two-component, and one-component signals paralleling physiological homeostasis. This study has also helped identify several previously unknown sensor and effector modules in these systems. Our findings also augment the growing evidence for the emergence of key animal immunity and chromatin regulatory components from prokaryotic progenitors.
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8
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Transcriptional Studies on a Streptomyces clavuligerus oppA2 Deletion Mutant: N-Acetylglycyl-Clavaminic Acid Is an Intermediate of Clavulanic Acid Biosynthesis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.01701-18. [PMID: 30194098 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01701-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The oppA2 gene encodes an oligopeptide-binding protein similar to the periplasmic substrate-binding proteins of the ABC transport systems. However, oppA2 is an orphan gene, not included in an ABC operon. This gene is located in the clavulanic acid (CA) gene cluster of Streptomyces clavuligerus and is essential for CA production. A transcriptomic study of the oppA2-null mutant S. clavuligerus ΔoppA2::aac showed changes in the expression levels of 233 genes from those in the parental strain. These include genes for ABC transport systems, secreted proteins, peptidases, and proteases. Expression of the clavulanic acid, clavam, and cephamycin C biosynthesis gene clusters was not significantly affected in the oppA2 deletion mutant. The genes for holomycin biosynthesis were upregulated 2-fold on average, and the level of upregulation increased to 43-fold in a double mutant lacking oppA2 and the pSCL4 plasmid. Strains in which oppA2 was mutated secreted into the culture the compound N-acetylglycyl-clavaminic acid (AGCA), a putative intermediate of CA biosynthesis. A culture broth containing AGCA, or AGCA purified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), was added to the cultures of various non-CA-producing mutants. Mutants blocked in the early steps of the pathway restored CA production, whereas mutants altered in late steps did not, establishing that AGCA is a late intermediate of the biosynthetic pathway, which is released from the cells when the oligopeptide-binding protein OppA2 is not available.IMPORTANCE The oppa2 gene encodes an oligopeptide permease essential for the production of clavulanic acid. A transcriptomic analysis of S. clavuligerus ΔoppA2::aac in comparison to the parental strain S. clavuligerus ATCC 27064 is reported. The lack of OppA2 results in different expression of 233 genes, including genes for proteases and genes for transport systems. The expression of the clavulanic acid genes in the oppA2 mutant is not significantly affected, but the genes for holomycin biosynthesis are strongly upregulated, in agreement with the higher holomycin production by this strain. The oppA2-mutant is known to release N-acetylglycyl-clavaminic acid to the broth. Cosynthesis assays using non-clavulanic acid-producing mutants showed that the addition of pure N-acetylglycyl-clavaminic acid to mutants in which clavulanic acid formation was blocked resulted in the recovery of clavulanic acid production, but only in mutants blocked in the early steps of the pathway. This suggests that N-acetylglycyl-clavaminic acid is a previously unknown late intermediate of the clavulanic acid pathway.
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Botas A, Pérez-Redondo R, Rodríguez-García A, Álvarez-Álvarez R, Yagüe P, Manteca A, Liras P. ArgR of Streptomyces coelicolor Is a Pleiotropic Transcriptional Regulator: Effect on the Transcriptome, Antibiotic Production, and Differentiation in Liquid Cultures. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:361. [PMID: 29545785 PMCID: PMC5839063 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ArgR is a well-characterized transcriptional repressor controlling the expression of arginine and pyrimidine biosynthetic genes in bacteria. In this work, the biological role of Streptomyces coelicolor ArgR was analyzed by comparing the transcriptomes of S. coelicolor ΔargR and its parental strain, S. coelicolor M145, at five different times over a 66-h period. The effect of S. coelicolor ArgR was more widespread than that of the orthologous protein of Escherichia coli, affecting the expression of 1544 genes along the microarray time series. This S. coelicolor regulator repressed the expression of arginine and pyrimidine biosynthetic genes, but it also modulated the expression of genes not previously described to be regulated by ArgR: genes involved in nitrogen metabolism and nitrate utilization; the act, red, and cpk genes for antibiotic production; genes for the synthesis of the osmotic stress protector ectoine; genes related to hydrophobic cover formation and sporulation (chaplins, rodlins, ramR, and whi genes); all the cwg genes encoding proteins for glycan cell wall biosynthesis; and genes involved in gas vesicle formation. Many of these genes contain ARG boxes for ArgR binding. ArgR binding to seven new ARG boxes, located upstream or near the ectA-ectB, afsS, afsR, glnR, and redH genes, was tested by DNA band-shift assays. These data and those of previously assayed fragments permitted the construction of an improved model of the ArgR binding site. Interestingly, the overexpression of sporulation genes observed in the ΔargR mutant in our culture conditions correlated with a sporulation-like process, an uncommon phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alma Botas
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, León, Spain.,Instituto de Biotecnología de León, León, Spain
| | | | - Antonio Rodríguez-García
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, León, Spain.,Instituto de Biotecnología de León, León, Spain
| | - Rubén Álvarez-Álvarez
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Paula Yagüe
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional e IUOPA, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Angel Manteca
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Funcional e IUOPA, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Paloma Liras
- Área de Microbiología, Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad de León, León, Spain
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10
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Desai SK, Kenney LJ. To ∼P or Not to ∼P? Non-canonical activation by two-component response regulators. Mol Microbiol 2016; 103:203-213. [PMID: 27656860 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria sense and respond to their environment through the use of two-component regulatory systems. The ability to adapt to a wide range of environmental stresses is directly related to the number of two-component systems an organism possesses. Recent advances in this area have identified numerous variations on the archetype systems that employ a sensor kinase and a response regulator. It is now evident that many orphan regulators that lack cognate kinases do not rely on phosphorylation for activation and new roles for unphosphorylated response regulators have been identified. The significance of recent findings and suggestions for further research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuti K Desai
- Mechanobiology Institute, 5A Engineering Drive 1, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Linda J Kenney
- Mechanobiology Institute, 5A Engineering Drive 1, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Jesse Brown Veteran's Administration Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Illinois-Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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11
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Barka EA, Vatsa P, Sanchez L, Gaveau-Vaillant N, Jacquard C, Meier-Kolthoff JP, Klenk HP, Clément C, Ouhdouch Y, van Wezel GP. Taxonomy, Physiology, and Natural Products of Actinobacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2016; 80:1-43. [PMID: 26609051 PMCID: PMC4711186 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00019-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 936] [Impact Index Per Article: 117.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinobacteria are Gram-positive bacteria with high G+C DNA content that constitute one of the largest bacterial phyla, and they are ubiquitously distributed in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Many Actinobacteria have a mycelial lifestyle and undergo complex morphological differentiation. They also have an extensive secondary metabolism and produce about two-thirds of all naturally derived antibiotics in current clinical use, as well as many anticancer, anthelmintic, and antifungal compounds. Consequently, these bacteria are of major importance for biotechnology, medicine, and agriculture. Actinobacteria play diverse roles in their associations with various higher organisms, since their members have adopted different lifestyles, and the phylum includes pathogens (notably, species of Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Propionibacterium, and Tropheryma), soil inhabitants (e.g., Micromonospora and Streptomyces species), plant commensals (e.g., Frankia spp.), and gastrointestinal commensals (Bifidobacterium spp.). Actinobacteria also play an important role as symbionts and as pathogens in plant-associated microbial communities. This review presents an update on the biology of this important bacterial phylum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Essaid Ait Barka
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Parul Vatsa
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Lisa Sanchez
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Nathalie Gaveau-Vaillant
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Cedric Jacquard
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | | | - Hans-Peter Klenk
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Christophe Clément
- Laboratoire de Stress, Défenses et Reproduction des Plantes, Unité de Recherche Vignes et Vins de Champagne, UFR Sciences, UPRES EA 4707, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Yder Ouhdouch
- Faculté de Sciences Semlalia, Université Cadi Ayyad, Laboratoire de Biologie et de Biotechnologie des Microorganismes, Marrakesh, Morocco
| | - Gilles P van Wezel
- Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biology, Sylvius Laboratories, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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The Pathway-Specific Regulator ClaR of Streptomyces clavuligerus Has a Global Effect on the Expression of Genes for Secondary Metabolism and Differentiation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2015; 81:6637-48. [PMID: 26187955 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00916-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptomyces clavuligerus claR::aph is a claR-defective mutant, but in addition to its claR defect it also carries fewer copies of the resident linear plasmids pSCL2 and pSCL4 (on the order of 4 × 10(5)-fold lower than the wild-type strain), as shown by qPCR. To determine the function of ClaR without potential interference due to plasmid copy number, a new strain, S. clavuligerus ΔclaR::aac, with claR deleted and carrying the wild-type level of plasmids, was constructed. Transcriptomic analyses were performed in S. clavuligerus ΔclaR::aac and S. clavuligerus ATCC 27064 as the control strain. The new ΔclaR mutant did not produce clavulanic acid (CA) and showed a partial expression of genes for the early steps of the CA biosynthesis pathway and a very poor expression (1 to 8%) of the genes for the late steps of the CA pathway. Genes for cephamycin C biosynthesis were weakly upregulated (1.7-fold at 22.5 h of culture) in the ΔclaR mutant, but genes for holomycin biosynthesis were expressed at levels from 3- to 572-fold higher than in the wild-type strain, supporting the observed overproduction of holomycin by S. clavuligerus ΔclaR::aac. Interestingly, three secondary metabolites produced by gene clusters SMCp20, SMCp22, and SMCp24, encoding still-cryptic compounds, had partially or totally downregulated their genes in the mutant, suggesting a regulatory role for ClaR wider than previously reported. In addition, the amfR gene was downregulated, and consequently, the mutant did not produce aerial mycelium. Expression levels of about 100 genes in the genome were partially up- or downregulated in the ΔclaR mutant, many of them related to the upregulation of the sigma factor-encoding rpoE gene.
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Lin W, Wang Y, Han X, Zhang Z, Wang C, Wang J, Yang H, Lu Y, Jiang W, Zhao GP, Zhang P. Atypical OmpR/PhoB subfamily response regulator GlnR of actinomycetes functions as a homodimer, stabilized by the unphosphorylated conserved Asp-focused charge interactions. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:15413-25. [PMID: 24733389 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.543504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The OmpR/PhoB subfamily protein GlnR of actinomycetes is an orphan response regulator that globally coordinates the expression of genes related to nitrogen metabolism. Biochemical and genetic analyses reveal that the functional GlnR from Amycolatopsis mediterranei is unphosphorylated at the potential phosphorylation Asp(50) residue in the N-terminal receiver domain. The crystal structure of this receiver domain demonstrates that it forms a homodimer through the α4-β5-α5 dimer interface highly similar to the phosphorylated typical response regulator, whereas the so-called "phosphorylation pocket" is not conserved, with its space being occupied by an Arg(52) from the β3-α3 loop. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments confirm that GlnR forms a functional homodimer via its receiver domain and suggest that the charge interactions of Asp(50) with the highly conserved Arg(52) and Thr(9) in the receiver domain may be crucial in maintaining the proper conformation for homodimerization, as also supported by molecular dynamics simulations of the wild type GlnR versus the deficient mutant GlnR(D50A). This model is backed by the distinct phenotypes of the total deficient GlnR(R52A/T9A) double mutant versus the single mutants of GlnR (i.e. D50N, D50E, R52A and T9A), which have only minor effects upon both dimerization and physiological function of GlnR in vivo, albeit their DNA binding ability is weakened compared with that of the wild type. By integrating the supportive data of GlnRs from the model Streptomyces coelicolor and the pathogenic Mycobacterium tuberculosis, we conclude that the actinomycete GlnR is atypical with respect to its unphosphorylated conserved Asp residue being involved in the critical Arg/Asp/Thr charge interactions, which is essential for maintaining the biologically active homodimer conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lin
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Ying Wang
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, the State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Department of Microbiology and Microbial Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Xiaobiao Han
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Zilong Zhang
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Chengyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jin Wang
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Huaiyu Yang
- the Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yinhua Lu
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Weihong Jiang
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology
| | - Guo-Ping Zhao
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, the State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Department of Microbiology and Microbial Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China, the Shanghai-MOST Key Laboratory of Disease and Health Genomics, Chinese National Human Genome Center at Shanghai, Shanghai 201203, China, the Department of Microbiology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Health Sciences, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, China, and
| | - Peng Zhang
- From the Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology, State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China,
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Ulrych A, Goldová J, Petříček M, Benada O, Kofroňová O, Rampírová P, Petříčková K, Branny P. The pleiotropic effect of WD-40 domain containing proteins on cellular differentiation and production of secondary metabolites in Streptomyces coelicolor. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2013; 9:1453-69. [PMID: 23529369 DOI: 10.1039/c3mb25542e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The genome of Streptomyces coelicolor encodes six potential WD-40 genes. Two of them, the wdpB (SCO5953) and the wdpC (SCO4422) genes, were studied to determine their function. Deletion of the wdpB gene resulted in a considerable decrease of aerial hyphae formation, leading to a conditionally bald phenotype, and reduced undecylprodigiosin production. In addition, the aerial hyphae of the ΔwdpB mutant strain were unusually branched and showed the signs of irregular septation and precocious lysis. Disruption of wdpC resulted in the reduction of undecylprodigiosin and delayed actinorhodin production. The ΔwdpC mutant strain showed precocious lysis of hyphae and delayed sporulation without typical curling of aerial hyphae in the early sporulation stage. The whole-genome transcriptome analysis revealed that deletion of wdpB affects the expression of genes involved in aerial hyphae differentiation, sporulation and secondary metabolites production. Deletion of wdpC caused downregulation of several gene clusters encoding secondary metabolites. Both the wdp genes seem to possess transcriptional autoregulatory function. Overexpression and genetic complementation studies confirmed the observed phenotype of both mutants. The results obtained suggest that both genes studied have a pleiotropic effect on physiological and morphological differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleš Ulrych
- Institute of Microbiology of the ASCR, v.v.i., Vídeňská 1083, 142 20 Prague 4, Czech Republic
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15
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Liu G, Chater KF, Chandra G, Niu G, Tan H. Molecular regulation of antibiotic biosynthesis in streptomyces. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2013; 77:112-43. [PMID: 23471619 PMCID: PMC3591988 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00054-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 496] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptomycetes are the most abundant source of antibiotics. Typically, each species produces several antibiotics, with the profile being species specific. Streptomyces coelicolor, the model species, produces at least five different antibiotics. We review the regulation of antibiotic biosynthesis in S. coelicolor and other, nonmodel streptomycetes in the light of recent studies. The biosynthesis of each antibiotic is specified by a large gene cluster, usually including regulatory genes (cluster-situated regulators [CSRs]). These are the main point of connection with a plethora of generally conserved regulatory systems that monitor the organism's physiology, developmental state, population density, and environment to determine the onset and level of production of each antibiotic. Some CSRs may also be sensitive to the levels of different kinds of ligands, including products of the pathway itself, products of other antibiotic pathways in the same organism, and specialized regulatory small molecules such as gamma-butyrolactones. These interactions can result in self-reinforcing feed-forward circuitry and complex cross talk between pathways. The physiological signals and regulatory mechanisms may be of practical importance for the activation of the many cryptic secondary metabolic gene cluster pathways revealed by recent sequencing of numerous Streptomyces genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Keith F. Chater
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Govind Chandra
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich, United Kingdom
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16
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Völler GH, Krawczyk JM, Pesic A, Krawczyk B, Nachtigall J, Süssmuth RD. Characterization of New Class III Lantibiotics-Erythreapeptin, Avermipeptin and Griseopeptin from Saccharopolyspora erythraea, Streptomyces avermitilis and Streptomyces griseus Demonstrates Stepwise N-Terminal Leader Processing. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1174-83. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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17
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Gatewood ML, Bralley P, Weil MR, Jones GH. RNA-Seq and RNA immunoprecipitation analyses of the transcriptome of Streptomyces coelicolor identify substrates for RNase III. J Bacteriol 2012; 194:2228-37. [PMID: 22389483 PMCID: PMC3347082 DOI: 10.1128/jb.06541-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
RNase III is a key enzyme in the pathways of RNA degradation and processing in bacteria and has been suggested as a global regulator of antibiotic production in Streptomyces coelicolor. Using RNA-Seq, we have examined the transcriptomes of S. coelicolor M145 and an RNase III (rnc)-null mutant of that strain. RNA preparations with reduced levels of structural RNAs were prepared by subtractive hybridization prior to RNA-Seq analysis. We initially identified 7,800 transcripts of known and putative protein-coding genes in M145 and the null mutant, JSE1880, along with transcripts of 21 rRNA genes and 65 tRNA genes. Approximately 3,100 of the protein-coding transcripts were categorized as low-abundance transcripts. For further analysis, we selected those transcripts of known and putative protein-coding genes whose levels changed by ≥ 2-fold between the two S. coelicolor strains and organized those transcripts into 16 functional categories. We refined our analysis by performing RNA immunoprecipitation of the mRNA preparation from JSE1880 using a mutant RNase III protein that binds to transcripts but does not cleave them. This analysis identified ca. 800 transcripts that were enriched in the RNA immunoprecipitates, including 28 transcripts whose levels also changed by ≥ 2-fold in the RNA-Seq analysis. We compare our results with those obtained by microarray analysis of the S. coelicolor transcriptome and with studies describing the characterization of small noncoding RNAs. We have also used the RNA immunoprecipitation results to identify new substrates for RNase III cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Ryan Weil
- Emory Genome Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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18
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Lechner A, Eustáquio AS, Gulder TAM, Hafner M, Moore BS. Selective overproduction of the proteasome inhibitor salinosporamide A via precursor pathway regulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 18:1527-36. [PMID: 22195555 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2011.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The chlorinated natural product salinosporamide A is a potent 20S proteasome inhibitor currently in clinical trials as an anticancer agent. To deepen our understanding of salinosporamide biosynthesis, we investigated the function of a LuxR-type pathway-specific regulatory gene, salR2, and observed a selective effect on the production of salinosporamide A over its less active aliphatic analogs. SalR2 specifically activates genes involved in the biosynthesis of the halogenated precursor chloroethylmalonyl-CoA, which is a dedicated precursor of salinosporamide A. Specifically, SalR2 activates transcription of two divergent operons-one of which contains the unique S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent chlorinase encoding gene salL. By applying this knowledge to rational engineering, we were able to selectively double salinosporamide A production. This study exemplifies the specialized regulation of a polyketide precursor pathway and its application to the selective overproduction of a specific natural product congener.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lechner
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA
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19
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Gaskell AA, Giovinazzo JA, Fonte V, Willey JM. Multi-tier regulation of the streptomycete morphogenetic peptide SapB. Mol Microbiol 2012; 84:501-15. [PMID: 22486809 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2012.08041.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Streptomyces coelicolor is a morphologically complex bacterium requiring the secretion of surface-active proteins to progress through its life cycle. SapB represents an important class of these biosurfactants, as illustrated by its ability to restore aerial hyphae formation when applied exogenously to developmental mutants. However, such aerial hyphae fail to sporulate, exemplifying the need to co-ordinate the timing of SapB production with other developmental events. SapB has an unusual lantibiotic structure. Its structural gene, ramS, is only 38 nucleotides downstream of the gene encoding its putative modification enzyme, RamC. Transient, co-ordinated expression of the operon was thought to be controlled by the response regulator RamR. However, we show that ramS is transcribed throughout the cell cycle with a dual expression profile dissimilar to the tightly controlled ramC expression. Surprisingly, post-translational modification relies on prior membrane localization of the precursor peptide, RamS, as demonstrated by the absence of RamS modification in S. coelicolor hyphae treated with the Bacillus subtilis lipoprotein surfactin. Our results demonstrate that interspecies interaction can also be mediated by interference of post-translational events. Further, temporal and spatial regulation of irreversible post-translational modification of a surface-active morphogenetic peptide suggests a new model for the control of key developmental events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alisa A Gaskell
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA.
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20
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Hickey JM, Lovell S, Battaile KP, Hu L, Middaugh CR, Hefty PS. The atypical response regulator protein ChxR has structural characteristics and dimer interface interactions that are unique within the OmpR/PhoB subfamily. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:32606-16. [PMID: 21775428 PMCID: PMC3173177 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.220574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Typically as a result of phosphorylation, OmpR/PhoB response regulators form homodimers through a receiver domain as an integral step in transcriptional activation. Phosphorylation stabilizes the ionic and hydrophobic interactions between monomers. Recent studies have shown that some response regulators retain functional activity in the absence of phosphorylation and are termed atypical response regulators. The two currently available receiver domain structures of atypical response regulators are very similar to their phospho-accepting homologs, and their propensity to form homodimers is generally retained. An atypical response regulator, ChxR, from Chlamydia trachomatis, was previously reported to form homodimers; however, the residues critical to this interaction have not been elucidated. We hypothesize that the intra- and intermolecular interactions involved in forming a transcriptionally competent ChxR are distinct from the canonical phosphorylation (activation) paradigm in the OmpR/PhoB response regulator subfamily. To test this hypothesis, structural and functional studies were performed on the receiver domain of ChxR. Two crystal structures of the receiver domain were solved with the recently developed method using triiodo compound I3C. These structures revealed many characteristics unique to OmpR/PhoB subfamily members: typical or atypical. Included was the absence of two α-helices present in all other OmpR/PhoB response regulators. Functional studies on various dimer interface residues demonstrated that ChxR forms relatively stable homodimers through hydrophobic interactions, and disruption of these can be accomplished with the introduction of a charged residue within the dimer interface. A gel shift study with monomeric ChxR supports that dimerization through the receiver domain is critical for interaction with DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott Lovell
- the Protein Structure Laboratory, Del Shankel Structural Biology Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66047, and
| | - Kevin P. Battaile
- the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, IMCA-CAT, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439
| | - Lei Hu
- Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045
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21
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Willey JM, Gaskell AA. Morphogenetic Signaling Molecules of the Streptomycetes. Chem Rev 2010; 111:174-87. [DOI: 10.1021/cr1000404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M. Willey
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York 11549, United States, and Hofstra University-North Shore-Long Island Jewish School of Medicine, Hempstead, New York 11549, United States
| | - Alisa A. Gaskell
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York 11549, United States, and Hofstra University-North Shore-Long Island Jewish School of Medicine, Hempstead, New York 11549, United States
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22
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Zakikhany K, Harrington CR, Nimtz M, Hinton JCD, Römling U. Unphosphorylated CsgD controls biofilm formation in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Mol Microbiol 2010; 77:771-86. [PMID: 20545866 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07247.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The transcriptional regulator CsgD of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is a major regulator of biofilm formation required for the expression of csgBA, which encodes curli fimbriae, and adrA, coding for a diguanylate cyclase. CsgD is a response regulator with an N-terminal receiver domain with a conserved aspartate (D59) as a putative target site for phosphorylation and a C-terminal LuxR-like helix-turn-helix DNA binding motif, but the mechanisms of target gene activation remained unclear. To study the DNA-binding properties of CsgD we used electrophoretic mobility shift assays and DNase I footprint analysis to show that unphosphorylated CsgD-His(6) binds specifically to the csgBA and adrA promoter regions. In vitro transcription analysis revealed that CsgD-His(6) is crucial for the expression of csgBA and adrA. CsgD-His(6) is phosphorylated by acetyl phosphate in vitro, which decreases its DNA-binding properties. The functional impact of D59 in vivo was demonstrated as S. Typhimurium strains expressing modified CsgD protein (D59E and D59N) were dramatically reduced in biofilm formation due to decreased protein stability and DNA-binding properties in the case of D59E. In summary, our findings suggest that the response regulator CsgD functions in its unphosphorylated form under the conditions of biofilm formation investigated in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherina Zakikhany
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology (MTC), Karolinska Institutet, FE 280, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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23
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Bourret RB. Receiver domain structure and function in response regulator proteins. Curr Opin Microbiol 2010; 13:142-9. [PMID: 20211578 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2010.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
During signal transduction by two-component regulatory systems, sensor kinases detect and encode input information while response regulators (RRs) control output. Most receiver domains function as phosphorylation-mediated switches within RRs, but some transfer phosphoryl groups in multistep phosphorelays. Conserved features of receiver domain amino acid sequence correlate with structure and hence function. Receiver domains catalyze their own phosphorylation and dephosphorylation in reactions requiring a divalent cation. Molecular dynamics simulations are supplementing structural investigation of the conformational changes that underlie receiver domain switch function. As understanding of features shared by all receiver domains matures, factors conferring differences (e.g. in reaction rate or specificity) are receiving increased attention. Numerous examples of atypical receiver or pseudo-receiver domains that function without phosphorylation have recently been characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Bourret
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7290, USA.
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24
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Wang L, Tian X, Wang J, Yang H, Fan K, Xu G, Yang K, Tan H. Autoregulation of antibiotic biosynthesis by binding of the end product to an atypical response regulator. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:8617-8622. [PMID: 19423672 PMCID: PMC2688989 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0900592106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
In bacteria, many "atypical" response regulators (ARRs) lack the conserved residues important for phosphorylation by which typical response regulators switch their output response, suggesting the existence of alternative regulatory mechanisms. However, such mechanisms have not been established. JadR1, an OmpR-type ARR of Streptomyces venezuelae, appears to activate the transcription of jadomycin B (JdB) biosynthetic genes while repressing its own gene. JadR1 activities were inhibited in cells induced to produce JdB, which was found to bind directly to the N-terminal receiver domain of JadR1, causing JadR1 to dissociate from target promoters. The activity of a NarL-type ARR, RedZ, that regulates production of another antibiotic was likewise modulated by the end product (undecylprodigisines), implying that end-product-mediated control of antibiotic pathway-specific ARRs may be widespread. These results could prove relevant to knowledge-based improvements in yield of commercially important antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linqi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiuyun Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Haihua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Keqiang Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Gangming Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Keqian Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Huarong Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
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25
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Pulsawat N, Kitani S, Fukushima E, Nihira T. Hierarchical control of virginiamycin production in Streptomyces virginiae by three pathway-specific regulators: VmsS, VmsT and VmsR. Microbiology (Reading) 2009; 155:1250-1259. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.022467-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Two regulatory genes encoding a Streptomyces antibiotic regulatory protein (vmsS) and a response regulator (vmsT) of a bacterial two-component signal transduction system are present in the left-hand region of the biosynthetic gene cluster of the antibiotic virginiamycin, which is composed of virginiamycin M (VM) and virginiamycin S (VS), in Streptomyces virginiae. Disruption of vmsS abolished both VM and VS biosynthesis, with drastic alteration of the transcriptional profile for virginiamycin biosynthetic genes, whereas disruption of vmsT resulted in only a loss of VM biosynthesis, suggesting that vmsS is a pathway-specific regulator for both VM and VS biosynthesis, and that vmsT is a pathway-specific regulator for VM biosynthesis alone. Gene expression profiles determined by semiquantitative RT-PCR on the virginiamycin biosynthetic gene cluster demonstrated that vmsS controls the biosynthetic genes for VM and VS, and vmsT controls unidentified gene(s) of VM biosynthesis located outside the biosynthetic gene cluster. In addition, transcriptional analysis of a deletion mutant of vmsR located in the clustered regulatory region in the virginiamycin cluster (and which also acts as a SARP-family activator for both VM and VS biosynthesis) indicated that the expression of vmsS and vmsT is under the control of vmsR, and vmsR also contributes to the expression of VM and VS biosynthetic genes, independent of vmsS and vmsT. Therefore, coordinated virginiamycin biosynthesis is controlled by three pathway-specific regulators which hierarchically control the expression of the biosynthetic gene cluster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nattika Pulsawat
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kitani
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Eriko Fukushima
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Takuya Nihira
- MU-OU Collaborative Research Center for Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Rd, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, 2-1, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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26
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Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous bacterium. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7:36-49. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro1968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 465] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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27
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Yap MN, Yang CH, Charkowski AO. The Response regulator HrpY of Dickeya dadantii 3937 regulates virulence genes not linked to the hrp cluster. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2008; 21:304-314. [PMID: 18257680 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-21-3-0304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
HrpX/Y is a putative two-component system (TCS) encoded within the type III secretion system (T3SS) gene cluster of Dickeya dadantii. A linear regulatory cascade initiated by HrpX/Y that leads to activation of the downstream T3SS genes via HrpS and HrpL was described previously. Therefore, in D. dadantii, HrpX/Y plays an important role in regulation of genes involved in bacteria-plant interactions and bacterial aggregation via the T3SS. HrpX/Y is the only TCS shared among the plant-pathogenic enterobacteria that is not also present in animal-associated enterobacteria. To date, the genes known to be regulated by HrpY are restricted to the hrp and hrc genes and no signal has been identified that triggers HrpY-dependent gene expression. We demonstrated that HrpY interacts with the hrpS promoter in vitro. We then used a transposon-based system to isolate previously unidentified HrpY-dependent genes, including genes previously shown to affect virulence, including kdgM and acsC. HrpY is a dual regulator, positively regulating at least 10 genes in addition to those in the hrp gene cluster and negatively regulating at least 5 genes. The regulatory effect on one gene depended on the culture medium used. Of the 16 HrpY-regulated genes identified in this screen, 14 are not present in Pectobacterium atrosepticum, the nearest relative of D. dadantii with a sequenced genome. None of the newly identified HrpY-regulated genes were required for bacterial aggregation; thus, neither acyl-homoserine lactone-mediated quorum sensing nor the Rcs signal transduction system which regulates colanic acid, a molecule that plays an important role in biofilm formation in other enterobacteria, are required for D. dadantii aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mee-Ngan Yap
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison 53706, USA
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Abstract
The current need for antibiotics with novel target molecules has coincided with advances in technical approaches for the structural and functional analysis of the lantibiotics, which are ribosomally synthesized peptides produced by gram-positive bacteria. These peptides have antibiotic or morphogenetic activity and are structurally defined by the presence of unusual amino acids introduced by posttranslational modification. Lantibiotics are complex polycyclic molecules formed by the dehydration of select Ser and Thr residues and the intramolecular addition of Cys thiols to the resulting unsaturated amino acids to form lanthionine and methyllanthionine bridges, respectively. Importantly, the structural and functional diversity of the lantibiotics is much broader than previously imagined. Here we discuss this growing collection of molecules and introduce some recently discovered peptides, review advances in enzymology and protein engineering, and discuss the regulatory networks that govern the synthesis of the lantibiotics by the producing organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M Willey
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York 11549, USA.
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Capstick DS, Willey JM, Buttner MJ, Elliot MA. SapB and the chaplins: connections between morphogenetic proteins in Streptomyces coelicolor. Mol Microbiol 2007; 64:602-13. [PMID: 17462011 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05674.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Morphogenesis in the streptomycetes features the differentiation of substrate-associated vegetative hyphae into upwardly growing aerial filaments. This transition requires the activity of bld genes and the secretion of biosurfactants that reduce the surface tension at the colony-air interface enabling the emergence of nascent aerial hyphae. Streptomyces coelicolor produces two classes of surface-active molecules, SapB and the chaplins. While both molecules are important for aerial development, nothing is known about the functional redundancy or interaction of these surfactants apart from the observation that aerial hyphae formation can proceed via one of two pathways: a SapB-dependent pathway when cells are grown on rich medium and a SapB-independent pathway on poorly utilized carbon sources such as mannitol. We used mutant analysis to show that while the chaplins are important, but not required, for development on rich medium, they are essential for differentiation on MS (soy flour mannitol) medium, and the corresponding developmental defects could be suppressed by the presence of SapB. Furthermore, the chaplins are produced by conditional bld mutants during aerial hyphae formation when grown on the permissive medium, MS, suggesting that the previously uncharacterized SapB-independent pathway is chaplin dependent. In contrast, a bld mutant blocked in aerial morphogenesis on all media makes neither SapB nor chaplins. Finally, we show that a constructed null mutant that lacks all chaplin and SapB biosynthetic genes fails to differentiate in any growth condition. We propose that the biosurfactant activities of both SapB and the chaplins are essential for normal aerial hyphae formation on rich medium, while chaplin biosynthesis and secretion alone drives aerial morphogenesis on MS medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Capstick
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S4K1, Canada
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McKenzie NL, Nodwell JR. Phosphorylated AbsA2 negatively regulates antibiotic production in Streptomyces coelicolor through interactions with pathway-specific regulatory gene promoters. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:5284-92. [PMID: 17513473 PMCID: PMC1951880 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00305-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The AbsA two-component signal transduction system, comprised of the sensor kinase AbsA1 and the response regulator AbsA2, acts as a negative regulator of antibiotic production in Streptomyces coelicolor, for which the phosphorylated form of AbsA2 (AbsA2 approximately P) is the agent of repression. In this study, we used chromatin immunoprecipitation to show that AbsA2 binds the promoter regions of actII-ORF4, cdaR, and redZ, which encode pathway-specific activators for actinorhodin, calcium-dependent antibiotic, and undecylprodigiosin, respectively. We confirm that these interactions also occur in vitro and that the binding of AbsA2 to each gene is enhanced by phosphorylation. Induced expression of actII-ORF4 and redZ in the hyperrepressive absA1 mutant (C542) brought about pathway-specific restoration of actinorhodin and undecylprodigiosin production, respectively. Our results suggest that AbsA2 approximately P interacts with as many as four sites in the region that includes the actII-ORF4 promoter. These data suggest that AbsA2 approximately P inhibits antibiotic production by directly interfering with the expression of pathway-specific regulators of antibiotic biosynthetic gene clusters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy L McKenzie
- Department of Biochemistry & Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Health Sciences Centre, 1200 Main St. W., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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Tian Y, Fowler K, Findlay K, Tan H, Chater KF. An unusual response regulator influences sporulation at early and late stages in Streptomyces coelicolor. J Bacteriol 2007; 189:2873-85. [PMID: 17220225 PMCID: PMC1855786 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01615-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
WhiI, a regulator required for efficient sporulation septation in the aerial mycelium of Streptomyces coelicolor, resembles response regulators of bacterial two-component systems but lacks some conserved features of typical phosphorylation pockets. Four amino acids of the abnormal "phosphorylation pocket" were changed by site-directed mutagenesis. Unlike whiI null mutations, these point mutations did not interfere with sporulation septation but had various effects on spore maturation. Transcriptome analysis was used to compare gene expression in the wild-type strain, a D27A mutant (pale gray spores), a D69E mutant (wild-type spores), and a null mutant (white aerial mycelium, no spores) (a new variant of PCR targeting was used to introduce the point mutations into the chromosomal copy of whiI). The results revealed 45 genes that were affected by the deletion of whiI. Many of these showed increased expression in the wild type at the time when aerial growth and development were taking place. About half of them showed reduced expression in the null mutant, and about half showed increased expression. Some, but not all, of these 45 genes were also affected by the D27A mutation, and a few were affected by the D69E mutation. The results were consistent with a model in which WhiI acts differently at sequential stages of development. Consideration of the functions of whiI-influenced genes provides some insights into the physiology of aerial hyphae. Mutation of seven whiI-influenced genes revealed that three of them play roles in spore maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100080, People's Republic of China
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San Paolo S, Huang J, Cohen SN, Thompson CJ. rag genes: novel components of the RamR regulon that trigger morphological differentiation in Streptomyces coelicolor. Mol Microbiol 2006; 61:1167-86. [PMID: 16925552 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2006.05304.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The filamentous bacterium, Streptomyces coelicolor, undergoes a complex cycle of growth and development in which morphological differentiation coincides with the activation of the orphan response regulator RamR and the biosynthesis of a morphogenic peptide called SapB. SapB is a lantibiotic-like molecule derived from the product of the ramS gene that promotes formation of aerial hyphae by breaking the aqueous tension on the surface of the substrate mycelium. A ramR-disrupted mutant is delayed in aerial hyphae formation while constitutive overexpression of ramR accelerates aerial hyphae formation in the wild-type strain and restores SapB biosynthesis and aerial hyphae formation in all developmental mutants (bld) tested. Using DNA microarrays to globally identify S. coelicolor genes whose transcription was affected by ramR mutation or overexpression, we discovered a ramR-activated locus of contiguous cotranscribed developmental genes that modulate both aerial hyphae formation and sporulation. The genes of this cluster of ramR-activated genes (rag), which are chromosomally distant from previously known RamR-regulated genes, include: ragA (sco4075) and ragB (sco4074), which encode two subunits of an ABC transporter, ragK (sco4073), a putative histidine kinase, and ragR (sco4072), a ramR paralogue. Promoter mapping and protein-DNA binding experiments indicate that RamR activates ragABKR transcription directly, by binding to three sequence motifs in the ragABKR promoter region. A constructed ragABKR null mutant was able to synthesize SapB and erect aerial hyphae; however, these hyphae were unusually branched, reminiscent of substrate hyphae. Subsequent stages of differentiation, septation and sporogenesis were delayed. The role of ragABKR in aerial hyphae formation was shown both by epistasis (ragR-activated aerial hyphae formation in bld mutants) and extracellular complementation (ragR-induced synthesis of an activity allowing aerial hyphae formation in bld mutants) experiments. In conclusion, the ragABKR locus activates a SapB-independent developmental pathway that is involved in both aerial hyphae formation and sporulation, serving to integrate sequential morphogenic changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore San Paolo
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Biocentre, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Chater KF, Chandra G. The evolution of development inStreptomycesanalysed by genome comparisons. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2006; 30:651-72. [PMID: 16911038 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2006.00033.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
There is considerable information about the genetic control of the processes by which mycelial Streptomyces bacteria form spore-bearing aerial hyphae. The recent acquisition of genome sequences for 16 species of actinobacteria, including two streptomycetes, makes it possible to try to reconstruct the evolution of Streptomyces differentiation by a comparative genomic approach, and to place the results in the context of current views on the evolution of bacteria. Most of the developmental genes evaluated are found only in actinobacteria that form sporulating aerial hyphae, with several being peculiar to streptomycetes. Only four (whiA, whiB, whiD, crgA) are generally present in nondifferentiating actinobacteria, and only two (whiA, whiG) are found in other bacteria, where they are widespread. Thus, the evolution of Streptomyces development has probably involved the stepwise acquisition of laterally transferred DNA, each successive acquisition giving rise either to regulatory changes that affect the conditions under which development is initiated, or to changes in cellular structure or morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith F Chater
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich, UK.
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Willey JM, Willems A, Kodani S, Nodwell JR. Morphogenetic surfactants and their role in the formation of aerial hyphae in Streptomyces coelicolor. Mol Microbiol 2006; 59:731-42. [PMID: 16420347 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.05018.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Withstanding environmental adversity and seeking optimal conditions for reproduction are basic requirements for the survival of all organisms. Filamentous bacteria of the genus Streptomyces produce a remarkable cell type called the aerial hyphae that is central to its ability to meet both of these challenges. Recent advances have brought about a major shift in our understanding of the cell surface proteins that play important roles in the generation of these cells. Here we review our current understanding of one of these groups of proteins, the morphogenetic surfactants, with emphasis on the SapB protein of Streptomyces coelicolor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne M Willey
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY 11549, USA.
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