Structural basis for Aβ1–42 toxicity inhibition by Aβ C-terminal fragments: discrete molecular dynamics study

Rg1 improves Alzheimer's disease by regulating mitochondrial dynamics mediated by the AMPK/Drp1 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia, characterized by a complex pathogenesis that includes Aβ deposition, abnormal phosphorylation of tau protein, chronic neuroinflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. In traditional medicine, ginseng is revered as the 'king of herbs'. Ginseng has the effects of greatly tonifying vital energy, strengthening the spleen and benefiting the lungs, generating fluids and nourishing the blood, and calming the mind while enhancing intelligence. Ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) is a well-defined major active component found in ginseng, known for its relatively high content. It has been demonstrated to exhibit neuroprotective effects in both in vivo and in vitro models, capable of ameliorating Aβ and tau pathology, regulating synaptic function, and reducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. However, the potential of Rg1 to improve AD pathology through the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics is still uncertain.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Despite the active research efforts on drugs for AD, the currently available anti-AD medications can only slow disease progression and manage symptoms, yet unable to provide a cure for AD. Furthermore, some anti-AD drugs failed phase III and IV clinical trials due to significant side effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need to further investigate the pathogenesis of AD, to identify new therapeutic targets, and to explore more effective therapies. The aim of this study is to evaluate the potential therapeutic effects of Rg1 on APP/PS1 double transgenic mice and Aβ42-induced HT22 cell models, and to investigate the potential mechanisms through which it provides neuroprotective effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study investigates the effects of Rg1 in treating AD on APP/PS1 double transgenic mice and Aβ42-induced HT22 cells. In the in vivo experiments, APP/PS1 mice were divided into a model group, Rg1-L group, Rg1-H group, and donepezil group, with C57BL/6 mice serving as the control group (n = 12 per group). The Rg1-L and Rg1-H groups were administered Rg1 at doses of 5 mg/kg/d and 10 mg/kg/d, respectively, while the donepezil group received donepezil at a dose of 1.3 mg/kg/d. Both the control and model groups received an equal volume of physiological saline daily for 28 days. Learning and spatial memory were assessed by the Morris water maze (MWM) and novel object recognition (NOR) tests, and neuronal damage by Nissl staining. Aβ deposition was analyzed through immunohistochemistry and Western blot, while the expression levels of synaptic proteins PSD95 and SYN were evaluated via immunofluorescence staining and Western blot. The dendritic spines of neurons was observed by Golgi staining.The ultrastructure of neuronal mitochondria and synapses was examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Mitochondrial function was assessed through measurements of Reactive oxygen species (ROS), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), and Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), and Western blot analysis was performed to detect the expression levels of AMPK, p-AMPK, Drp1, p-Drp1, OPA1, Mfn1, and Mfn2, thereby investigating the protective effects of Rg1 on mitochondrial dysfunction and cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 double transgenic mice. In vitro experiments, HT22 cells were treated with Aβ42 of 10 μM for 24 h to verify the therapeutic effects of Rg1. Flow cytometry was used to detect ROS and JC-1, biochemical methods were employed to measure SOD and ATP, immunofluorescence staining was used to detect the expression levels of PSD95 and SYN, and Western blot analysis was conducted to elucidate its potential mechanisms of action.

RESULTS

The findings suggest that after 28 days of Rg1 treatment, cognitive dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice was improved. Pathological and immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated that Rg1 treatment significantly reduced Aβ deposition and neuronal loss. Rg1 can improve synaptic dysfunction and mitochondrial function in APP/PS1 mice. Rg1 activated AMPK, enhanced p-AMPK expression, inhibited Drp1, and reduced p-Drp1 levels, which led to increased expression of OPA1, Mfn1, and Mfn2, thereby inhibiting mitochondrial fission and facilitating mitochondrial fusion. Additionally, Rg1 effectively reversed the decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and the increase in ROS production induced by Aβ42 in HT22 cells, restoring SOD and ATP levels. Furthermore, Rg1 regulated mitochondrial fission mediated by the AMPK/Drp1 signaling pathway, promoting mitochondrial fusion and improving synaptic dysfunction.

CONCLUSION

Our research provides evidence for the neuroprotective mechanisms of Rg1 in AD models. Rg1 modulates mitochondrial dynamics through the AMPK/Drp1 signaling pathway, thereby reducing synaptic and mitochondrial dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice and AD cell models.

Strategies for inhibiting amyloid fibrillation: Current status and future prospects

One of the hallmarks of multiple neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, is deposition of insoluble amyloid fibrils, which are toxic proteinaceous structures containing cross β-sheets. Several inhibitory strategies have been devised by researchers to impede or slow down the generation of such toxic species. Small compounds, peptides, and antibodies have been studied as possible inhibitors to interfere with key steps in amyloid production. Furthermore, adjusting environmental variables, such as temperature and pH have been known to impact the amyloid fibrillation process. Additionally, strategies are also available to reduce the possibility of protein misfolding so as to inhibit the subsequent development of fibrils, simply by stabilizing native protein conformations. It is very promising to develop targeted inhibitory therapies and comprehend the complexities of amyloid fibrillation in order to develop effective therapeutics to slow the progression of neurodegenerative disorders linked to misfolding and aggregation of proteins.

Brazilin-7-2-butenoate inhibits amyloid β-protein aggregation, alleviates cytotoxicity, and protects Caenorhabditis elegans

The fibrillogenesis of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) gradually accumulates to form neurotoxic Aβ aggregates in the human brain, which is the direct cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD) related symptoms. There are currently no effective therapies for AD. Brazilin, a natural polyphenol, inhibits Aβ fibrillogenesis, disrupts the mature fibrils and alleviates the corresponding cytotoxicity, but it also has the high toxic. Therefore, brazilin-7-2-butenoate (B-7-2-B), a brazilin derivative, was designed and synthesized. B-7-2-B exhibited lower toxicity and stronger inhibitory effect on Aβ aggregation than brazilin. B-7-2-B could prevent the formation of Aβ fibrils and oligomers, and depolymerize pre-formed aggregates in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, B-7-2-B prominently alleviated the cytotoxicity and the oxidative stress induced by Aβ aggregates in PC12 cells. The protective impacts of B-7-2-B were further demonstrated by using the Caenorhabditis elegans model, including decreasing the extent of Aβ aggregation, improving the motility and sensation disorders. Eventually, B-7-2-B was proven to be no apparent damage to worms. In summarize, it can be concluded that B-7-2-B has the potential as a drug for treating AD.

Influencing factors and characterization methods of nanoparticles regulating amyloid aggregation

Human disorders associated with amyloid aggregation, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, afflict the lives of millions worldwide. When peptides and proteins in the body are converted to amyloids, which have a tendency to aggregate, the toxic oligomers produced during the aggregation process can trigger a range of diseases. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been found to possess surface effects that can modulate the amyloid aggregation process and they have potential application value in the treatment of diseases related to amyloid aggregation and fibrillary tangles. In this review, we discuss recent progress relating to studies of nanoparticles that regulate amyloid aggregation. The review focuses on the factors influencing this regulation, which are important as guidelines for the future design of NPs for the treatment of amyloid aggregation. We describe the characterization methods that have been utilized so far in such studies. This review provides research information and characterization methods for the rational design of NPs, which should result in therapeutic strategies for amyloid diseases.

Effects of Aβ-derived peptide fragments on fibrillogenesis of Aβ

Amyloid β (Aβ) peptide aggregation plays a central role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) etiology. AD drug candidates have included small molecules or peptides directed towards inhibition of Aβ fibrillogenesis. Although some Aβ-derived peptide fragments suppress Aβ fibril growth, comprehensive analysis of inhibitory potencies of peptide fragments along the whole Aβ sequence has not been reported. The aim of this work is (a) to identify the region(s) of Aβ with highest propensities for aggregation and (b) to use those fragments to inhibit Aβ fibrillogenesis. Structural and aggregation properties of the parent Aβ_1-42 peptide and seven overlapping peptide fragments have been studied, i.e. Aβ_1-10 (P1), Aβ_6-15 (P2), Aβ_11-20 (P3), Aβ_16-25 (P4), Aβ_21-30 (P5), Aβ_26-36 (P6), and Aβ_31-42 (P7). Structural transitions of the peptides in aqueous buffer have been monitored by circular dichroism and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Aggregation and fibrillogenesis were analyzed by light scattering and thioflavin-T fluorescence. The mode of peptide-peptide interactions was characterized by fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Three peptide fragments, P3, P6, and P7, exhibited exceptionally high propensity for β-sheet formation and aggregation. Remarkably, only P3 and P6 exerted strong inhibitory effect on the aggregation of Aβ_1-42, whereas P7 and P2 displayed moderate inhibitory potency. It is proposed that P3 and P6 intercalate between Aβ_1-42 molecules and thereby inhibit Aβ_1-42 aggregation. These findings may facilitate therapeutic strategies of inhibition of Aβ fibrillogenesis by Aβ-derived peptides.

Thermo- and pH-responsive fibrillization of squid suckerin A1H1 peptide

Stimuli-responsive smart materials have attracted considerable attention with numerous applications in nanotechnology, sensing, and biomedicine. Suckerin family proteins found in squid ring teeth represent such a class of peptide-based smart materials with their self-assemblies featuring excellent thermo-plasticity and pH-dependence. Similar to block copolymers, suckerin proteins are comprised of two repeating sequence motifs, where M1 motifs are abundant in alanine and histidine residues and M2 are rich in glycine. Experimental studies of suckerin assemblies suggested that M1 regions mainly formed nano-confined β-sheets within an amorphous matrix made of M2 modules stabilizing these β-rich nano-assemblies. The histidine-containing M1 modules are believed to govern the pH- and temperature-sensitive properties of suckerin assemblies. To better understand the stimuli-responsive properties of suckerin assemblies at the molecular level, we systematically studied the self-assembly dynamics of A1H1 peptides - a representative M1 sequence - at different temperatures and pH conditions with atomistic discrete molecular dynamic simulations. Our simulations with twenty A1H1 peptides demonstrated that below the transition temperature Tagg, they could readily self-assemble from isolated monomers into well-defined β-sheet nanostructures by both primary and secondary nucleation of β-sheets and subsequent aggregation growth via elongation and coagulation. Interestingly, the dissociation of pre-formed A1H1 β-sheet nanostructures featured a melting temperature Tm higher than Tagg, exhibiting the thermal hysteresis that is characteristic of first-order phase transitions with high energy barriers. In acidic environments where all histidine residues were protonated, the stability of the A1H1 β-sheet nano-assemblies was reduced and the β-rich assemblies easily dissociated into unstructured monomers at significantly lower temperatures than in the neutral solution. The computationally derived molecular mechanisms for pH- and temperature-dependent A1H1 self-assembly will help to understand the supramolecular assembly structures and functions of the large suckerin family and aid in the future design of peptide-based stimuli-responsive smart materials.

Oleuropein aglycone and hydroxytyrosol interfere differently with toxic Aβ1-42 aggregation

Oleuropein aglycone (OleA), the most abundant polyphenol in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), and Hydroxythyrosol (HT), the OleA main metabolite, have attracted our interest due to their multitarget effects, including the interference with amyloid aggregation path. However, the mechanistic details of their anti-amyloid effect are not known yet. We report here a broad biophysical approach and cell biology techniques that enabled us to characterize the different molecular mechanisms by which OleA and HT modulate the Aβ_1-42 fibrillation, a main histopathological feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In particular, OleA prevents the growth of toxic Aβ_1-42 oligomers and blocks their successive growth into mature fibrils following its interaction with the peptide N-terminus, while HT speeds up harmless fibril formation. Our data demonstrate that, by stabilizing oligomers and fibrils, both polyphenols reduce their seeding activity and aggregate/membrane interaction on human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. These findings highlight the great potential of EVOO polyphenols and offer the possibility to validate and to optimize their use for possible AD prevention and therapy.

β-barrel Oligomers as Common Intermediates of Peptides Self-Assembling into Cross-β Aggregates

Oligomers populated during the early amyloid aggregation process are more toxic than mature fibrils, but pinpointing the exact toxic species among highly dynamic and heterogeneous aggregation intermediates remains a major challenge. β-barrel oligomers, structurally-determined recently for a slow-aggregating peptide derived from αB crystallin, are attractive candidates for exerting amyloid toxicity due to their well-defined structures as therapeutic targets and compatibility to the "amyloid-pore" hypothesis of toxicity. To assess whether β-barrel oligomers are common intermediates to amyloid peptides - a necessary step toward associating β-barrel oligomers with general amyloid cytotoxicity, we computationally studied the oligomerization and fibrillization dynamics of seven well-studied fragments of amyloidogenic proteins with different experimentally-determined aggregation morphologies and cytotoxicity. In our molecular dynamics simulations, β-barrel oligomers were only observed in five peptides self-assembling into the characteristic cross-β aggregates, but not the other two that formed polymorphic β-rich aggregates as reported experimentally. Interestingly, the latter two peptides were previously found nontoxic. Hence, the observed correlation between β-barrel oligomers formation and cytotoxicity supports the hypothesis of β-barrel oligomers as the common toxic intermediates of amyloid aggregation.

Melatonin ameliorates Aβ1-42-induced Alzheimer's cognitive deficits in mouse model

Objectives

The objective of this study was to evaluate whether melatonin could ameliorate cognitive function in Aβ1-42-induced mouse model and its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Series behaviour tests were performed to demonstrate the amelioration of cognitive function of the Alzheimer's disease (AD) mice induced by Aβ1-42. Additionally, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was applied to detect the expression of Aβ1-42, BACE1 and p-tau protein in the brain of the AD mice. JC-1 was performed to investigate the role in alleviating mitochondrial damage by melatonin in vitro. Western blot was used to detect the expression of melatonin on apoptosis-related factors caspase-3 and Bcl-2, as well as the expressions of GSK-3β and PP2A to further determine the mechanisms of melatonin on the expression of p-tau protein.

Key findings

Melatonin significantly ameliorated the cognitive function and mitochondrial damage in AD mice, reduced the expression levels of GSK-3β, caspase-3, Aβ1-42, BACE1, p-tau protein and increased the expressions of PP2A and Bcl-2.

Conclusion

From the overall results, we concluded that melatonin alleviated the mitochondrial damage effectively and decreased the expressions of the p-tau and some key proteins of apoptosis, leading to the improvement of cognitive function of the mice induced by Aβ1-42.

Emergence of Alternative Structures in Amyloid Beta 1-42 Monomeric Landscape by N-terminal Hexapeptide Amyloid Inhibitors

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides into senile plaques in the brain. While most familial mutations are associated with early-onset AD, recent studies report the AD-protective nature of two genetic human Aβ variants, i.e. A2T and A2V, in the heterozygous state. The mixture of A2V Aβ1-6 (Aβ₆) hexapeptide and WT Aβ1–42 (Αβ₄₂) is also found neuroprotective. Motivated by these findings, in this study we investigate the effects of WT, A2V, and A2T Aβ₆ hexapeptide binding on the monomeric WT Aβ₄₂ landscape. For this purpose, we have performed extensive atomistic Replica Exchange Molecular Dynamics simulations, elucidating preferential binding of Aβ₄₂ with the A2V and A2T hexapeptides compared to WT Aβ₆. A notable reorganization of the Aβ₄₂ landscape is revealed due to hexapeptide association, as manifested by lowering of transient interactions between the central and C-terminal hydrophobic patches. Concurrently, Aβ₆-bound Aβ₄₂ monomer exhibits alternative structural features that are strongly dependent on the hexapeptide sequence. For example, a central helix is more frequently populated within the A2T-bound monomer, while A2V-bound Aβ₄₂ is often enhanced in overall disorder. Taken together, the present simulations offer novel molecular insights onto the effect of the N-terminal hexapeptide binding on the Aβ₄₂ monomer structure, which might help in explaining their reported amyloid inhibition properties.

High-Resolution Structures of the Amyloid-β 1-42 Dimers from the Comparison of Four Atomistic Force Fields

The dimer of the amyloid-β peptide Aβ of 42 residues is the smallest toxic species in Alzheimer's disease, but its equilibrium structures are unknown. Here we determined the equilibrium ensembles generated by the four atomistic OPLS-AA, CHARMM22*, AMBER99sb-ildn, and AMBERsb14 force fields with the TIP3P water model. On the basis of 144 μs replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations (with 750 ns per replica), we find that the four force fields lead to random coil ensembles with calculated cross-collision sections, hydrodynamics properties, and small-angle X-ray scattering profiles independent of the force field. There are, however, marked differences in secondary structure, with the AMBERsb14 and CHARMM22* ensembles overestimating the CD-derived helix content, and the OPLS-AA and AMBER99sb-ildn secondary structure contents in agreement with CD data. Also the intramolecular beta-hairpin content spanning residues 17-21 and 30-36 varies between 1.5% and 13%. Overall, there are significant differences in tertiary and quaternary conformations among all force fields, and the key finding, irrespective of the force field, is that the dimer is stabilized by nonspecific interactions, explaining therefore its possible transient binding to multiple cellular partners and, in part, its toxicity.

Assembly of Stefin B into Polymorphic Oligomers Probed by Discrete Molecular Dynamics

Assembly of an amyloidogenic protein stefin B into molten globule oligomers is studied by efficient discrete molecular dynamics. Consistent with in vitro findings, tetramers form primarily through dimer association, resulting in a decreased trimer abundance. Oligomers up to heptamers display elongated rod-like morphologies akin to protofibrils, whereas larger oligomers, decamers through dodecamers, form elongated, branched, as well as annular structures, providing structural insights into pore forming ability and toxicity of amyloidogenic proteins.

Modulation of Amyloid β-Protein (Aβ) Assembly by Homologous C-Terminal Fragments as a Strategy for Inhibiting Aβ Toxicity

Self-assembly of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) into neurotoxic oligomers and fibrillar aggregates is a key process thought to be the proximal event leading to development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Therefore, numerous attempts have been made to develop reagents that disrupt this process and prevent the formation of the toxic oligomers and aggregates. An attractive strategy for developing such reagents is to use peptides derived from Aβ based on the assumption that such peptides would bind to full-length Aβ, interfere with binding of additional full-length molecules, and thereby prevent formation of the toxic species. Guided by this rationale, most of the studies in the last two decades have focused on preventing formation of the core cross-β structure of Aβ amyloid fibrils using β-sheet-breaker peptides derived from the central hydrophobic cluster of Aβ. Though this approach is effective in inhibiting fibril formation, it is generally inefficient in preventing Aβ oligomerization. An alternative approach is to use peptides derived from the C-terminus of Aβ, which mediates both oligomerization and fibrillogenesis. This approach has been explored by several groups, including our own, and led to the discovery of several lead peptides with moderate to high inhibitory activity. Interestingly, the mechanisms of these inhibitory effects have been found to be diverse, and only in a small percentage of cases involved interference with β-sheet formation. Here, we review the strategy of using C-terminal fragments of Aβ as modulators of Aβ assembly and discuss the relevant challenges, therapeutic potential, and mechanisms of action of such fragments.

Amino acid substitutions [K16A] and [K28A] distinctly affect amyloid β-protein oligomerization

Amyloid β-protein (A β) assembles into oligomers that play a seminal role in Alzheimer's disease (AD), a leading cause of dementia among the elderly. Despite undisputed importance of A β oligomers, their structure and the basis of their toxicity remain elusive. Previous experimental studies revealed that the [K16A] substitution strongly inhibits toxicity of the two predominant A β alloforms in the brain, A β 40 and A β 42, whereas the [K28A] substitution exerts only a moderate effect. Here, folding and oligomerization of [A16]A β 40, [A28]A β 40, [A16]A β 42, and [A28]A β 42 are examined by discrete molecular dynamics (DMD) combined with a four-bead implicit solvent force field, DMD4B-HYDRA, and compared to A β 40 and A β 42 oligomer formation. Our results show that both substitutions promote A β 40 and A β 42 oligomerization and that structural changes to oligomers are substitution- and alloform-specific. The [K28A] substitution increases solvent-accessible surface area of hydrophobic residues and the intrapeptide N-to-C terminal distance within oligomers more than the [K16A] substitution. The [K16A] substitution decreases the overall β-strand content, whereas the [K28A] substitution exerts only a modest change. Substitution-specific tertiary and quaternary structure changes indicate that the [K16A] substitution induces formation of more compact oligomers than the [K28A] substitution. If the structure-function paradigm applies to A β oligomers, then the observed substitution-specific structural changes in A β 40 and A β 42 oligomers are critical for understanding the structural basis of A β oligomer toxicity and correct identification of therapeutic targets against AD.

Stabilizing Off-pathway Oligomers by Polyphenol Nanoassemblies for IAPP Aggregation Inhibition

Experimental studies have shown that many naturally occurring polyphenols have inhibitory effect on the aggregation of several proteins. Here, we use discrete molecular dynamics (DMD) simulations and high-throughput dynamic light scattering (DLS) experiments to study the anti-aggregation effects of two polyphenols, curcumin and resveratrol, on the aggregation of islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP or amylin). Our DMD simulations suggest that the aggregation inhibition is caused by stabilization of small molecular weight IAPP off-pathway oligomers by the polyphenols. Our analysis indicates that IAPP-polyphenol hydrogen bonds and π-π stacking combined with hydrophobic interactions are responsible for the stabilization of oligomers. The presence of small oligomers is confirmed with DLS measurements in which nanometer-sized oligomers are found to be stable for up to 7.5 hours, the time frame within which IAPP aggregates in the absence of polyphenols. Our study offers a general anti-aggregation mechanism for polyphenols, and further provides a computational framework for the future design of anti-amyloid aggregation therapeutics.

Stabilization of native amyloid β-protein oligomers by Copper and Hydrogen peroxide Induced Cross-linking of Unmodified Proteins (CHICUP)

Oligomeric assemblies are postulated to be proximate neurotoxic species in human diseases associated with aberrant protein aggregation. Their heterogeneous and transient nature makes their structural characterization difficult. Size distributions of oligomers of several amyloidogenic proteins, including amyloid β-protein (Aβ) relevant to Alzheimer's disease (AD), have been previously characterized in vitro by photo-induced cross-linking of unmodified proteins (PICUP) followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Due to non-physiological conditions associated with the PICUP chemistry, Aβ oligomers cross-linked by PICUP may not be representative of in vivo conditions. Here, we examine an alternative Copper and Hydrogen peroxide Induced Cross-linking of Unmodified Proteins (CHICUP), which utilizes naturally occurring divalent copper ions and hydrogen peroxide and does not require photo activation. Our results demonstrate that CHICUP and PICUP applied to the two predominant Aβ alloforms, Aβ40 and Aβ42, result in similar oligomer size distributions. Thioflavin T fluorescence data and atomic force microscopy images demonstrate that both CHICUP and PICUP stabilize Aβ oligomers and attenuate fibril formation. Relative to noncross-linked peptides, CHICUP-treated Aβ40 and Aβ42 cause prolonged disruption to biomimetic lipid vesicles. CHICUP-stabilized Aβ oligomers link the amyloid cascade, metal, and oxidative stress hypotheses of AD into a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of AD pathology. Because copper and hydrogen peroxide are elevated in the AD brain, CHICUP-stabilized Aβ oligomers are biologically relevant and should be further explored as a new therapeutic target.

Alzheimer's protective A2T mutation changes the conformational landscape of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer differently than does the A2V mutation

The aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides plays a crucial role in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, it has been reported that an A2T mutation in Aβ can protect against AD. Interestingly, a nonpolar A2V mutation also has been found to offer protection against AD in the heterozygous state, although it causes early-onset AD in homozygous carriers. Since the conformational landscape of the Aβ monomer is known to directly contribute to the early-stage aggregation mechanism, it is important to characterize the effects of the A2T and A2V mutations on Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer structure. Here, we have performed extensive atomistic replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations of the solvated wild-type (WT), A2V, and A2T Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomers. Our simulations reveal that although all three variants remain as collapsed coils in solution, there exist significant structural differences among them at shorter timescales. A2V exhibits an enhanced double-hairpin population in comparison to the WT, similar to those reported in toxic WT Aβ₁₋₄₂ oligomers. Such double-hairpin formation is caused by hydrophobic clustering between the N-terminus and the central and C-terminal hydrophobic patches. In contrast, the A2T mutation causes the N-terminus to engage in unusual electrostatic interactions with distant residues, such as K16 and E22, resulting in a unique population comprising only the C-terminal hairpin. These findings imply that a single A2X (where X = V or T) mutation in the primarily disordered N-terminus of the Aβ₁₋₄₂ monomer can dramatically alter the β-hairpin population and switch the equilibrium toward alternative structures. The atomistically detailed, comparative view of the structural landscapes of A2V and A2T variant monomers obtained in this study can enhance our understanding of the mechanistic differences in their early-stage aggregation.

Modulation of Alzheimer's Aβ protofilament-membrane interactions by lipid headgroups

The molecular pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is complex and sparsely understood. The relationship between AD's amyloid β (Aβ) peptides and neuronal membranes is central to Aβ's cytotoxicity and is directly modulated by the composition of the lipid headgroups. Molecular studies of the insertion of model Aβ40 protofilaments in lipid bilayers revealed strong interactions that affect the structural integrity of both the membranes and the ordered amyloid aggregates. In particular, electrostatics plays a crucial role in the interaction between Aβ protofilaments and palmytoil-oleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine (POPE) lipids, a common component of neuronal plasma membranes. Here, we use all-atom molecular dynamics and steered molecular dynamics simulations to systematically compare the effects that POPE and palmytoil-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine (POPC) headgroups have on the Aβ-lipid interactions. We find that Aβ protofilaments exhibit weaker electrostatic interactions with POPC headgroups and establish significantly shorter-lived contacts with the POPC bilayer. This illustrates the crucial yet complex role of electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions in modulating the anchoring and insertion of Aβ peptides into lipid bilayers. Our study reveals the atomistic details behind the barrier created by the lipid headgroup region in impeding solution-aggregated fibrillar oligomers to spontaneously insert into POPC bilayers, in contrast to the POPE case. While the biological reality is notoriously more complex (e.g., including other factors such as cholesterol), our results evidence a simple experimentally and computationally testable case for probing the factors that control the insertion of Aβ oligomeric aggregates in neuronal cell membranes--a process central to their neurotoxicity.

Capping of aβ42 oligomers by small molecule inhibitors

Aβ42 peptides associate into soluble oligomers and protofibrils in the process of forming the amyloid fibrils associated with Alzheimer's disease. The oligomers have been reported to be more toxic to neurons than fibrils, and have been targeted by a wide range of small molecule and peptide inhibitors. With single touch atomic force microscopy (AFM), we show that monomeric Aβ42 forms two distinct types of oligomers, low molecular weight (MW) oligomers with heights of 1-2 nm and high MW oligomers with heights of 3-5 nm. In both cases, the oligomers are disc-shaped with diameters of ~10-15 nm. The similar diameters suggest that the low MW species stack to form the high MW oligomers. The ability of Aβ42 inhibitors to interact with these oligomers is probed using atomic force microscopy and NMR spectroscopy. We show that curcumin and resveratrol bind to the N-terminus (residues 5-20) of Aβ42 monomers and cap the height of the oligomers that are formed at 1-2 nm. A second class of inhibitors, which includes sulindac sulfide and indomethacin, exhibit very weak interactions across the Aβ42 sequence and do not block the formation of the high MW oligomers. The correlation between N-terminal interactions and capping of the height of the Aβ oligomers provides insights into the mechanism of inhibition and the pathway of Aβ aggregation.

Minimal model of self-assembly: emergence of diversity and complexity

Molecular self-assembly is ubiquitous in nature, yet prediction of assembly pathways from fundamental interparticle interactions has yet to be achieved. Here, we introduce a minimal self-assembly model with two attractive and two repulsive beads bound into a tetrahedron. The model is associated with a single parameter η defined as the repulsive to attractive interaction ratio. We explore self-assembly pathways and resulting assembly morphologies for different η values by discrete molecular dynamics. Our results demonstrate that η governs the assembly dynamics and resulting assembly morphologies, revealing an unexpected diversity and complexity for 0.5 ≤ η < 1. One of the key processes that governs the assembly dynamics is assembly breakage, which emerges spontaneously at η > 0 with the breakage rate increasing with η. The observed assembly pathways display a broad variety of assembly structures characteristic of aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins, including quasi-spherical oligomers that coassemble into elongated protofibrils, followed by a conversion into ordered polymorphic fibril-like aggregates. We further demonstrate that η can be meaningfully mapped onto amyloidogenic protein sequences, with the majority of amyloidogenic proteins characterized by 0.5 ≤ η < 1. Prion proteins, which are known to form highly breakage-prone fibrils, are characterized by η > 1, consistent with the model predictions. Our model thus provides a theoretical basis for understanding the universal aspects of aggregation pathways of amyloidogenic proteins relevant to human disease. As the model is not specific to proteins, these findings represent an important step toward understanding and predicting assembly dynamics of not only proteins but also viruses, colloids, and nanoparticles.

Computational approaches to understanding protein aggregation in neurodegeneration

The generation of toxic non-native protein conformers has emerged as a unifying thread among disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Atomic-level detail regarding dynamical changes that facilitate protein aggregation, as well as the structural features of large-scale ordered aggregates and soluble non-native oligomers, would contribute significantly to current understanding of these complex phenomena and offer potential strategies for inhibiting formation of cytotoxic species. However, experimental limitations often preclude the acquisition of high-resolution structural and mechanistic information for aggregating systems. Computational methods, particularly those combine both all-atom and coarse-grained simulations to cover a wide range of time and length scales, have thus emerged as crucial tools for investigating protein aggregation. Here we review the current state of computational methodology for the study of protein self-assembly, with a focus on the application of these methods toward understanding of protein aggregates in human neurodegenerative disorders.

Plant-based vaccines for Alzheimer's disease: an overview

Plants are considered advantageous platforms for biomanufacturing recombinant vaccines. This constitutes a field of intensive research and some plant-derived vaccines are expected to be marketed in the near future. In particular, plant-based production of immunogens targeting molecules with implications on the pathology of Alzheimer's has been explored over the last decade. These efforts involve targeting amyloid beta and β-secretase with several immunogen configurations that have been evaluated in test animals. The results of these developments are analyzed in this review. Perspectives on the topic are identified, such as exploring additional antigen configurations and adjuvants in order to improve immunization schemes, characterizing in detail the elicited immune responses, and immunological considerations in the achievement of therapeutic humoral responses via mucosal immunization. Safety concerns related to these therapies will also be discussed.

Biophysical studies of the amyloid β-peptide: interactions with metal ions and small molecules

Alzheimer's disease is the most common of the protein misfolding ("amyloid") diseases. The deposits in the brains of afflicted patients contain as a major fraction an aggregated insoluble form of the so-called amyloid β-peptides (Aβ peptides): fragments of the amyloid precursor protein of 39-43 residues in length. This review focuses on biophysical studies of the Aβ peptides: that is, of the aggregation pathways and intermediates observed during aggregation, of the molecular structures observed along these pathways, and of the interactions of Aβ with Cu and Zn ions and with small molecules that modify the aggregation pathways. Particular emphasis is placed on studies based on high-resolution and solid-state NMR methods. Theoretical studies relating to the interactions are also included. An emerging picture is that of Aβ peptides in aqueous solution undergoing hydrophobic collapse together with identical partners. There then follows a relatively slow process leading to more ordered secondary and tertiary (quaternary) structures in the growing aggregates. These aggregates eventually assemble into elongated fibrils visible by electron microscopy. Small molecules or metal ions that interfere with the aggregation processes give rise to a variety of aggregation products that may be studied in vitro and considered in relation to observations in cell cultures or in vivo. Although the heterogeneous nature of the processes makes detailed structural studies difficult, knowledge and understanding of the underlying physical chemistry might provide a basis for future therapeutic strategies against the disease. A final part of the review deals with the interactions that may occur between the Aβ peptides and the prion protein, where the latter is involved in other protein misfolding diseases.

Discrete molecular dynamics study of oligomer formation by N-terminally truncated amyloid β-protein

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyloid β-protein (Aβ) self-assembles into toxic oligomers. Of the two predominant Aβ alloforms, Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42, the latter is particularly strongly linked to AD. N-terminally truncated and pyroglutamated Aβ peptides were recently shown to seed Aβ aggregation and contribute significantly to Aβ-mediated toxicity, yet their folding and assembly were not explored computationally. Discrete molecular dynamics approach previously captured in vitro-derived distinct Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 oligomer size distributions and predicted that the more toxic Aβ1-42 oligomers had more flexible and solvent-exposed N-termini than Aβ1-40 oligomers. Here, we examined oligomer formation of Aβ3-40, Aβ3-42, Aβ11-40, and Aβ11-42 by the discrete molecular dynamics approach. The four N-terminally truncated peptides showed increased oligomerization propensity relative to the full-length peptides, consistent with in vitro findings. Conformations formed by Aβ3-40/42 had significantly more flexible and solvent-exposed N-termini than Aβ1-40/42 conformations. In contrast, in Aβ11-40/42 conformations, the N-termini formed more contacts and were less accessible to the solvent. The compactness of the Aβ11-40/42 conformations was in part facilitated by Val12. Two single amino acid substitutions that reduced and abolished hydrophobicity at position 12, respectively, resulted in a proportionally increased structural variability. Our results suggest that Aβ11-40 and Aβ11-42 oligomers might be less toxic than Aβ1-40 and Aβ1-42 oligomers and offer a plausible explanation for the experimentally observed increased toxicity of Aβ3-40 and Aβ3-42 and their pyroglutamated forms.

Molecular dynamics simulations of amyloid fibrils: an in silico approach

Amyloid fibrils play causal roles in the pathogenesis of amyloid-related degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, type II diabetes mellitus, and the prion-related transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. The mechanism of fibril formation and protein aggregation is still hotly debated and remains an important open question in order to develop therapeutic method of these diseases. However, traditional molecular biological and crystallographic experiments could hardly observe atomic details and aggregation process. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations could provide explanations for experimental results and detailed pathway of protein aggregation. In this review, we focus on the applications of MD simulations on several amyloidogenic protein systems. Furthermore, MD simulations could help us to understand the mechanism of amyloid aggregation and how to design the inhibitors.

The role of molecular simulations in the development of inhibitors of amyloid β-peptide aggregation for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

The pathogenic aggregation of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) is considered a hallmark of the progression of Alzheimer's disease, the leading cause of senile dementia in the elderly and one of the principal causes of death in the United States. In the absence of effective therapeutics, the incidence and economic burden associated with the disease are expected to rise dramatically in the coming decades. Targeting Aβ aggregation is an attractive therapeutic approach, though structural insights into the nature of Aβ aggregates from traditional experiments are elusive, making drug design difficult. Theoretical methods have been used for several years to augment experimental work and drive progress forward in Alzheimer's drug design. In this Review, we will describe how two common techniques, molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations, are being applied in developing small molecules as effective therapeutics against monomeric, oligomeric, and fibrillated forms of Aβ. Recent successes and important limitations will be discussed, and we conclude by providing a perspective on the future of this field by citing recent examples of sophisticated approaches used to better characterize interactions of small molecules with Aβ and other amyloidogenic proteins.

Folding of pig gastric mucin non-glycosylated domains: a discrete molecular dynamics study

Mucin glycoproteins consist of tandem-repeating glycosylated regions flanked by non-repetitive protein domains with little glycosylation. These non-repetitive domains are involved in polymerization of mucin and play an important role in the pH-dependent gelation of gastric mucin, which is essential for protecting the stomach from autodigestion. We examine folding of the non-repetitive sequence of PGM-2X (242 amino acids) and the von Willebrand factor vWF-C1 domain (67 amino acids) at neutral and low pH using discrete molecular dynamics (DMD) in an implicit solvent combined with a four-bead peptide model. Using the same implicit solvent parameters, folding of both domains is simulated at neutral and low pH. In contrast to vWF-C1, PGM-2X folding is strongly affected by pH as indicated by changes in the contact order, radius of gyration, free-energy landscape, and the secondary structure. Whereas the free-energy landscape of vWF-C1 shows a single minimum at both neutral and low pH, the free-energy landscape of PGM-2X is characterized by multiple minima that are more numerous and shallower at low pH. Detailed structural analysis shows that PGM-2X partially unfolds at low pH. This partial unfolding is facilitated by the C-terminal region GLU236-PRO242, which loses contact with the rest of the domain due to effective "mean-field" repulsion among highly positively charged N- and C-terminal regions. Consequently, at low pH, hydrophobic amino acids are more exposed to the solvent. In vWF-C1, low pH induces some structural changes, including an increased exposure of CYS at position 67, but these changes are small compared to those found in PGM-2X. For PGM-2X, the DMD-derived average β-strand propensity increases from 0.26 ± 0.01 at neutral pH to 0.38 ± 0.01 at low pH. For vWF-C1, the DMD-derived average β-strand propensity is 0.32 ± 0.02 at neutral pH and 0.35 ± 0.02 at low pH. The DMD-derived structural information provides insight into pH-induced changes in the folding of two distinct mucin domains and suggests plausible mechanisms of the aggregation/gelation of mucin.

Combining conformational sampling and selection to identify the binding mode of zinc-bound amyloid peptides with bifunctional molecules

The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been suggested to be related with the aggregation of amyloid β (Aβ) peptides. Metal ions (e.g. Cu, Fe, and Zn) are supposed to induce the aggregation of Aβ. Recent development of bifunctional molecules that are capable of interacting with Aβ and chelating biometal ions provides promising therapeutics to AD. However, the molecular mechanism for how Aβ, metal ions, and bifunctional molecules interact with each other is still elusive. In this study, the binding mode of Zn(2+)-bound Aβ with bifunctional molecules was investigated by the combination of conformational sampling of full-length Aβ peptides using replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations (REMD) and conformational selection using molecular docking and classical MD simulations. We demonstrate that Zn(2+)-bound Aβ((1-40)) and Aβ((1-42)) exhibit different conformational ensemble. Both Aβ peptides can adopt various conformations to recognize typical bifunctional molecules with different binding affinities. The bifunctional molecules exhibit their dual functions by first preferentially interfering with hydrophobic residues 17-21 and/or 30-35 of Zn(2+)-bound Aβ. Additional interactions with residues surrounding Zn(2+) could possibly disrupt interactions between Zn(2+) and Aβ, which then facilitate these small molecules to chelate Zn(2+). The binding free energy calculations further demonstrate that the association of Aβ with bifunctional molecules is driven by enthalpy. Our results provide a feasible approach to understand the recognition mechanism of disordered proteins with small molecules, which could be helpful to the design of novel AD drugs.

Dimer formation enhances structural differences between amyloid β-protein (1-40) and (1-42): an explicit-solvent molecular dynamics study

Amyloid β-protein (Aβ) is central to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. A 5% difference in the primary structure of the two predominant alloforms, Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42), results in distinct assembly pathways and toxicity properties. Discrete molecular dynamics (DMD) studies of Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42) assembly resulted in alloform-specific oligomer size distributions consistent with experimental findings. Here, a large ensemble of DMD-derived Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42) monomers and dimers was subjected to fully atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations using the OPLS-AA force field combined with two water models, SPCE and TIP3P. The resulting all-atom conformations were slightly larger, less compact, had similar turn and lower β-strand propensities than those predicted by DMD. Fully atomistic Aβ(1-40) and Aβ(1-42) monomers populated qualitatively similar free energy landscapes. In contrast, the free energy landscape of Aβ(1-42) dimers indicated a larger conformational variability in comparison to that of Aβ(1-40) dimers. Aβ(1-42) dimers were characterized by an increased flexibility in the N-terminal region D1-R5 and a larger solvent exposure of charged amino acids relative to Aβ(1-40) dimers. Of the three positively charged amino acids, R5 was the most and K16 the least involved in salt bridge formation. This result was independent of the water model, alloform, and assembly state. Overall, salt bridge propensities increased upon dimer formation. An exception was the salt bridge propensity of K28, which decreased upon formation of Aβ(1-42) dimers and was significantly lower than in Aβ(1-40) dimers. The potential relevance of the three positively charged amino acids in mediating the Aβ oligomer toxicity is discussed in the light of available experimental data.

Modulating self-assembly of amyloidogenic proteins as a therapeutic approach for neurodegenerative diseases: strategies and mechanisms

Abnormal protein assembly causes multiple devastating disorders in the central nervous system (CNS), such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and prion diseases. Due to the now extended human lifespan, these diseases have been increasing in prevalence, resulting in major public health problems and the associated financial difficulties worldwide. The wayward proteins that lead to disease self-associate into neurotoxic oligomers and go on to form fibrillar polymers through multiple pathways. Thus, a range of possible targets for pharmacotherapeutic intervention exists along these pathways. Many compounds have shown different levels of effectiveness in inhibiting aberrant self-assembly, dissociating existing aggregates, protecting cells against neurotoxic insults, and in some cases ameliorating disease symptoms in vivo, yet achieving efficient, disease-modifying therapy in humans remains a major unattained goal. To a large degree, this is because the mechanisms of action for these drugs are essentially unknown. For successful design of new effective drugs, it is crucial to elucidate the mechanistic details of their action, including the actual target(s) along the protein aggregation pathways, how the compounds modulate these pathways, and their effect at the cellular, tissue, organ, and organism level. Here, the current knowledge of major mechanisms by which some of the more extensively explored drug candidates work are discussed. In particular, we focus on three prominent strategies: 1) stabilizing the native fold of amyloidogenic proteins, 2) accelerating the aggregation pathways towards the fibrillar endpoint thereby reducing accumulation of toxic oligomers, and 3) modulating the assembly process towards nontoxic oligomers/aggregates. The merit of each strategy is assessed, and the key points to consider when analyzing the efficacy of possible drug candidates and their mechanism of action are discussed.

Aβ(39-42) modulates Aβ oligomerization but not fibril formation

Recently, certain C-terminal fragments (CTFs) of Aβ42 have been shown to be effective inhibitors of Aβ42 toxicity. Here, we examine the interactions between the shortest CTF in the original series, Aβ(39-42), and full-length Aβ. Mass spectrometry results indicate that Aβ(39-42) binds directly to Aβ monomers and to the n = 2, 4, and 6 oligomers. The Aβ42:Aβ(39-42) complex is further probed using molecular dynamics simulations. Although the CTF was expected to bind to the hydrophobic C-terminus of Aβ42, the simulations show that Aβ(39-42) binds at several locations on Aβ42, including the C-terminus, other hydrophobic regions, and preferentially in the N-terminus. Ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS) and electron microscopy experiments indicate that Aβ(39-42) disrupts the early assembly of full-length Aβ. Specifically, the ion-mobility results show that Aβ(39-42) prevents the formation of large decamer/dodecamer Aβ42 species and, moreover, can remove these structures from solution. At the same time, thioflavin T fluorescence and electron microscopy results show that the CTF does not inhibit fibril formation, lending strong support to the hypothesis that oligomers and not amyloid fibrils are the Aβ form responsible for toxicity. The results emphasize the role of small, soluble assemblies in Aβ-induced toxicity and suggest that Aβ(39-42) inhibits Aβ-induced toxicity by a unique mechanism, modulating early assembly into nontoxic hetero-oligomers, without preventing fibril formation.

C-terminal tetrapeptides inhibit Aβ42-induced neurotoxicity primarily through specific interaction at the N-terminus of Aβ42

Inhibition of amyloid β-protein (Aβ)-induced toxicity is a promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previously, we reported that the C-terminal tetrapeptide Aβ(39-42) is a potent inhibitor of neurotoxicity caused by Aβ42, the form of Aβ most closely associated with AD. Here, initial structure-activity relationship studies identified key structural requirements, including chirality, side-chain structure, and a free N-terminus, which control Aβ(39-42) inhibitory activity. To elucidate the binding site(s) of Aβ(39-42) on Aβ42, we used intrinsic tyrosine (Y) fluorescence and solution-state NMR. The data suggest that Aβ(39-42) binds at several sites, of which the predominant one is located in the N-terminus of Aβ42, in agreement with recent modeling predictions. Thus, despite the small size of Aβ(39-42) and the hydrophobic, aliphatic nature of all four side-chains, the interaction of Aβ(39-42) with Aβ42 is controlled by specific intermolecular contacts requiring a combination of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions and a particular stereochemistry.

Flexibility and binding affinity in protein-ligand, protein-protein and multi-component protein interactions: limitations of current computational approaches

The recognition process between a protein and a partner represents a significant theoretical challenge. In silico structure-based drug design carried out with nothing more than the three-dimensional structure of the protein has led to the introduction of many compounds into clinical trials and numerous drug approvals. Central to guiding the discovery process is to recognize active among non-active compounds. While large-scale computer simulations of compounds taken from a library (virtual screening) or designed de novo are highly desirable in the post-genomic area, many technical problems remain to be adequately addressed. This article presents an overview and discusses the limits of current computational methods for predicting the correct binding pose and accurate binding affinity. It also presents the performances of the most popular algorithms for exploring binary and multi-body protein interactions.