1
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Cronan JE. Biotin protein ligase as you like it: Either extraordinarily specific or promiscuous protein biotinylation. Proteins 2024; 92:435-448. [PMID: 37997490 PMCID: PMC10932917 DOI: 10.1002/prot.26642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Biotin (vitamin H or B7) is a coenzyme essential for all forms of life. Biotin has biological activity only when covalently attached to a few key metabolic enzyme proteins. Most organisms have only one attachment enzyme, biotin protein ligase (BPL), which attaches biotin to all target proteins. The sequences of these proteins and their substrate proteins are strongly conserved throughout biology. Structures of both the biotin ligase- and biotin-acceptor domains of mammals, plants, several bacterial species, and archaea have been determined. These, together with mutational analyses of ligases and their protein substrates, illustrate the exceptional specificity of this protein modification. For example, the Escherichia coli BPL biotinylates only one of the >4000 cellular proteins. Several bifunctional bacterial biotin ligases transcriptionally regulate biotin synthesis and/or transport in concert with biotinylation. The human BPL has been demonstrated to play an important role in that mutations in the BPL encoding gene cause one form of the disease, biotin-responsive multiple carboxylase deficiency. Promiscuous mutant versions of several BPL enzymes release biotinoyl-AMP, the active intermediate of the ligase reaction, to solvent. The released biotinoyl-AMP acts as a chemical biotinylation reagent that modifies lysine residues of neighboring proteins in vivo. This proximity-dependent biotinylation (called BioID) approach has been heavily utilized in cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Cronan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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2
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Gupta MN, Uversky VN. Protein structure-function continuum model: Emerging nexuses between specificity, evolution, and structure. Protein Sci 2024; 33:e4968. [PMID: 38532700 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The rationale for replacing the old binary of structure-function with the trinity of structure, disorder, and function has gained considerable ground in recent years. A continuum model based on the expanded form of the existing paradigm can now subsume importance of both conformational flexibility and intrinsic disorder in protein function. The disorder is actually critical for understanding the protein-protein interactions in many regulatory processes, formation of membrane-less organelles, and our revised notions of specificity as amply illustrated by moonlighting proteins. While its importance in formation of amyloids and function of prions is often discussed, the roles of intrinsic disorder in infectious diseases and protein function under extreme conditions are also becoming clear. This review is an attempt to discuss how our current understanding of protein function, specificity, and evolution fit better with the continuum model. This integration of structure and disorder under a single model may bring greater clarity in our continuing quest for understanding proteins and molecular mechanisms of their functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munishwar Nath Gupta
- Department of Biochemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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3
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McCullagh M, Zeczycki TN, Kariyawasam CS, Durie CL, Halkidis K, Fitzkee NC, Holt JM, Fenton AW. What is allosteric regulation? Exploring the exceptions that prove the rule! J Biol Chem 2024; 300:105672. [PMID: 38272229 PMCID: PMC10897898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.105672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
"Allosteric" was first introduced to mean the other site (i.e., a site distinct from the active or orthosteric site), an adjective for "regulation" to imply a regulatory outcome resulting from ligand binding at another site. That original idea outlines a system with two ligand-binding events at two distinct locations on a macromolecule (originally a protein system), which defines a four-state energy cycle. An allosteric energy cycle provides a quantifiable allosteric coupling constant and focuses our attention on the unique properties of the four equilibrated protein complexes that constitute the energy cycle. Because many observed phenomena have been referenced as "allosteric regulation" in the literature, the goal of this work is to use literature examples to explore which systems are and are not consistent with the two-ligand thermodynamic energy cycle-based definition of allosteric regulation. We emphasize the need for consistent language so comparisons can be made among the ever-increasing number of allosteric systems. Building on the mutually exclusive natures of an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation versus classic two-state models, we conclude our discussion by outlining how the often-proposed Rube-Goldberg-like mechanisms are likely inconsistent with an energy cycle definition of allosteric regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin McCullagh
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Tonya N Zeczycki
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chathuri S Kariyawasam
- Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Clarissa L Durie
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Konstantine Halkidis
- Department of Hematologic Malignancies and Cellular Therapeutics, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Nicholas C Fitzkee
- Department of Chemistry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Jo M Holt
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
| | - Aron W Fenton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA.
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4
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Purtov YA, Ozoline ON. Neuromodulators as Interdomain Signaling Molecules Capable of Occupying Effector Binding Sites in Bacterial Transcription Factors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15863. [PMID: 37958845 PMCID: PMC10647483 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Hormones and neurotransmitters are important components of inter-kingdom signaling systems that ensure the coexistence of eukaryotes with their microbial community. Their ability to affect bacterial physiology, metabolism, and gene expression was evidenced by various experimental approaches, but direct penetration into bacteria has only recently been reported. This opened the possibility of considering neuromodulators as potential effectors of bacterial ligand-dependent regulatory proteins. Here, we assessed the validity of this assumption for the neurotransmitters epinephrine, dopamine, and norepinephrine and two hormones (melatonin and serotonin). Using flexible molecular docking for transcription factors with ligand-dependent activity, we assessed the ability of neuromodulators to occupy their effector binding sites. For many transcription factors, including the global regulator of carbohydrate metabolism, CRP, and the key regulator of lactose assimilation, LacI, this ability was predicted based on the analysis of several 3D models. By occupying the ligand binding site, neuromodulators can sterically hinder the interaction of the target proteins with the natural effectors or even replace them. The data obtained suggest that the direct modulation of the activity of at least some bacterial transcriptional factors by neuromodulators is possible. Therefore, the natural hormonal background may be a factor that preadapts bacteria to the habitat through direct perception of host signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri A. Purtov
- Department of Functional Genomics of Prokaryotes, Institute of Cell Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Federal Research Center Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia
| | - Olga N. Ozoline
- Department of Functional Genomics of Prokaryotes, Institute of Cell Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Federal Research Center Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia
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5
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Samanta R, Sanghvi N, Beckett D, Matysiak S. Emergence of allostery through reorganization of protein residue network architecture. J Chem Phys 2023; 158:085104. [PMID: 36859102 PMCID: PMC9974213 DOI: 10.1063/5.0136010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite more than a century of study, consensus on the molecular basis of allostery remains elusive. A comparison of allosteric and non-allosteric members of a protein family can shed light on this important regulatory mechanism, and the bacterial biotin protein ligases, which catalyze post-translational biotin addition, provide an ideal system for such comparison. While the Class I bacterial ligases only function as enzymes, the bifunctional Class II ligases use the same structural architecture for an additional transcription repression function. This additional function depends on allosterically activated homodimerization followed by DNA binding. In this work, we used experimental, computational network, and bioinformatics analyses to uncover distinguishing features that enable allostery in the Class II biotin protein ligases. Experimental studies of the Class II Escherichia coli protein indicate that catalytic site residues are critical for both catalysis and allostery. However, allostery also depends on amino acids that are more broadly distributed throughout the protein structure. Energy-based community network analysis of representative Class I and Class II proteins reveals distinct residue community architectures, interactions among the communities, and responses of the network to allosteric effector binding. Bioinformatics mutual information analyses of multiple sequence alignments indicate distinct networks of coevolving residues in the two protein families. The results support the role of divergent local residue community network structures both inside and outside of the conserved enzyme active site combined with distinct inter-community interactions as keys to the emergence of allostery in the Class II biotin protein ligases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riya Samanta
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Neel Sanghvi
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Silvina Matysiak
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
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6
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Young BD, Cook ME, Costabile BK, Samanta R, Zhuang X, Sevdalis SE, Varney KM, Mancia F, Matysiak S, Lattman E, Weber DJ. Binding and Functional Folding (BFF): A Physiological Framework for Studying Biomolecular Interactions and Allostery. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167872. [PMID: 36354074 PMCID: PMC10871162 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
EF-hand Ca2+-binding proteins (CBPs), such as S100 proteins (S100s) and calmodulin (CaM), are signaling proteins that undergo conformational changes upon increasing intracellular Ca2+. Upon binding Ca2+, S100 proteins and CaM interact with protein targets and induce important biological responses. The Ca2+-binding affinity of CaM and most S100s in the absence of target is weak (CaKD > 1 μM). However, upon effector protein binding, the Ca2+ affinity of these proteins increases via heterotropic allostery (CaKD < 1 μM). Because of the high number and micromolar concentrations of EF-hand CBPs in a cell, at any given time, allostery is required physiologically, allowing for (i) proper Ca2+ homeostasis and (ii) strict maintenance of Ca2+-signaling within a narrow dynamic range of free Ca2+ ion concentrations, [Ca2+]free. In this review, mechanisms of allostery are coalesced into an empirical "binding and functional folding (BFF)" physiological framework. At the molecular level, folding (F), binding and folding (BF), and BFF events include all atoms in the biomolecular complex under study. The BFF framework is introduced with two straightforward BFF types for proteins (type 1, concerted; type 2, stepwise) and considers how homologous and nonhomologous amino acid residues of CBPs and their effector protein(s) evolved to provide allosteric tightening of Ca2+ and simultaneously determine how specific and relatively promiscuous CBP-target complexes form as both are needed for proper cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna D Young
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Mary E Cook
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Brianna K Costabile
- Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Riya Samanta
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Xinhao Zhuang
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Spiridon E Sevdalis
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Kristen M Varney
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Filippo Mancia
- Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Silvina Matysiak
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Eaton Lattman
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
| | - David J Weber
- The Center for Biomolecular Therapeutics (CBT), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; The Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology Research (IBBR), Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
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7
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Sternicki LM, Nguyen S, Pacholarz KJ, Barran P, Pendini NR, Booker GW, Huet Y, Baltz R, Wegener KL, Pukala TL, Polyak SW. Biochemical characterisation of class III biotin protein ligases from Botrytis cinerea and Zymoseptoria tritici. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 691:108509. [PMID: 32717225 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Biotin protein ligase (BPL) is an essential enzyme in all kingdoms of life, making it a potential target for novel anti-infective agents. Whilst bacteria and archaea have simple BPL structures (class I and II), the homologues from certain eukaryotes such as mammals, insects and yeast (class III) have evolved a more complex structure with a large extension on the N-terminus of the protein in addition to the conserved catalytic domain. The absence of atomic resolution structures of any class III BPL hinders structural and functional analysis of these enzymes. Here, two new class III BPLs from agriculturally important moulds Botrytis cinerea and Zymoseptoria tritici were characterised alongside the homologue from the prototypical yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Circular dichroism and ion mobility-mass spectrometry analysis revealed conservation of the overall tertiary and secondary structures of all three BPLs, corresponding with the high sequence similarity. Subtle structural differences were implied by the different thermal stabilities of the enzymes and their varied Michaelis constants for their interactions with ligands biotin, MgATP, and biotin-accepting substrates from different species. The three BPLs displayed different preferences for fungal versus bacterial protein substrates, providing further evidence that class III BPLs have a 'substrate validation' activity for selecting only appropriate proteins for biotinylation. Selective, potent inhibition of these three BPLs was demonstrated despite sequence and structural homology. This highlights the potential for targeting BPL for novel, selective antifungal therapies against B. cinerea, Z. tritici and other fungal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M Sternicki
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Stephanie Nguyen
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia; Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Kamila J Pacholarz
- Michael Barber Centre for Collaborative Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Perdita Barran
- Michael Barber Centre for Collaborative Mass Spectrometry, Department of Chemistry, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M1 7DN, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole R Pendini
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Grant W Booker
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Yoann Huet
- Bayer SAS CropScience, La Dargoire Research Centre, Lyon, 69263 Cedex 09, France
| | - Rachel Baltz
- Bayer SAS CropScience, La Dargoire Research Centre, Lyon, 69263 Cedex 09, France
| | - Kate L Wegener
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia; Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Tara L Pukala
- School of Physical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Steven W Polyak
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia; Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), The University of Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.
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8
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Wang J, Samanta R, Custer G, Look C, Matysiak S, Beckett D. Tuning Allostery through Integration of Disorder to Order with a Residue Network. Biochemistry 2020; 59:790-801. [PMID: 31899864 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b01006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In allostery, a signal from one site in a protein is transmitted to a second site to alter its function. Due to its ubiquity in biology and the potential for its exploitation in drug and protein design, the molecular basis of allosteric communication continues to be the subject of intense research. Although allosterically coupled sites are frequently characterized by disorder, how communication between disordered segments occurs remains obscure. Allosteric activation of Escherichia coli BirA dimerization occurs via coupled distant disorder-to-order transitions. In this work, combined structural and computational studies reveal an extensive residue network in BirA. Substitution of several network residues yields large perturbations to allostery. Force distribution analysis reveals that disruptions to the disorder-to-order transitions through amino acid substitution are manifested in shifts in the energy experienced by network residues as well as alterations in packing of an α-helix that plays a critical role in allostery. The combined results reveal a highly distributed allosteric mechanism that is robust to sequence change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingheng Wang
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Riya Samanta
- Biophysics Graduate Program , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Gregory Custer
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Christopher Look
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Silvina Matysiak
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry , University of Maryland , College Park , Maryland 20742 , United States
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9
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The nucleosome core particle remembers its position through DNA replication and RNA transcription. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:20605-20611. [PMID: 31511420 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1911943116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleosomes are the fundamental structural unit of chromatin. In addition to stabilizing the DNA polymer, nucleosomes are modified in ways that reflect and affect gene expression in their vicinity. It has long been assumed that nucleosomes can transmit memory of gene expression through their covalent posttranslational modifications. An unproven assumption of this model, which is essential to most models of epigenetic inheritance, is that a nucleosome present at a locus reoccupies the same locus after DNA replication. We tested this assumption by nucleating a synthetic chromatin domain in vivo, in which ∼4 nucleosomes at an arbitrary locus were covalently labeled with biotin. We tracked the fate of labeled nucleosomes through DNA replication, and established that nucleosomes present at a locus remembered their position during DNA replication. The replication-associated histone chaperones Dpb3 and Mcm2 were essential for nucleosome position memory, and in the absence of both Dpb3 and Mcm2 histone chaperone activity, nucleosomes did not remember their position. Using the same approach, we tested the model that transcription results in retrograde transposition of nucleosomes along a transcription unit. We found no evidence of retrograde transposition. Our results suggest that nucleosomes have the capacity to transmit epigenetic memory across mitotic generations with exquisite spatial fidelity.
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10
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Abstract
Mistakes in the process of cell division can lead to the loss, gain or rearrangement of chromosomes. Significant chromosomal abnormalities are usually lethal to the cells and cause spontaneous miscarriages. However, in some cases, defects in the spindle assembly checkpoint lead to severe diseases, such as cancer and birth and development defects, including Down's syndrome. The timely and accurate control of chromosome segregation in mitosis relies on the spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC), an evolutionary conserved, self-regulated signalling system present in higher organisms. The spindle assembly checkpoint is orchestrated by dynamic interactions between spindle microtubules and the kinetochore , a multiprotein complex that constitutes the site for attachment of chromosomes to microtubule polymers to pull sister chromatids apart during cell division. This chapter discusses the current molecular understanding of the essential, highly dynamic molecular interactions underpinning spindle assembly checkpoint signalling and how the complex choreography of interactions can be coordinated in time and space to finely regulate the process. The potential of targeting this signalling pathway to interfere with the abnormal segregation of chromosomes, which occurs in diverse malignancies and the new opportunities that recent technological developments are opening up for a deeper understanding of the spindle assembly checkpoint are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor M Bolanos-Garcia
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK.
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11
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Satiaputra J, Sternicki LM, Hayes AJ, Pukala TL, Booker GW, Shearwin KE, Polyak SW. Native mass spectrometry identifies an alternative DNA-binding pathway for BirA from Staphylococcus aureus. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2767. [PMID: 30808984 PMCID: PMC6391492 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39398-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
An adequate supply of biotin is vital for the survival and pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus. The key protein responsible for maintaining biotin homeostasis in bacteria is the biotin retention protein A (BirA, also known as biotin protein ligase). BirA is a bi-functional protein that serves both as a ligase to catalyse the biotinylation of important metabolic enzymes, as well as a transcriptional repressor that regulates biotin biosynthesis, biotin transport and fatty acid elongation. The mechanism of BirA regulated transcription has been extensively characterized in Escherichia coli, but less so in other bacteria. Biotin-induced homodimerization of E. coli BirA (EcBirA) is a necessary prerequisite for stable DNA binding and transcriptional repression. Here, we employ a combination of native mass spectrometry, in vivo gene expression assays, site-directed mutagenesis and electrophoretic mobility shift assays to elucidate the DNA binding pathway for S. aureus BirA (SaBirA). We identify a mechanism that differs from that of EcBirA, wherein SaBirA is competent to bind DNA as a monomer both in the presence and absence of biotin and/or MgATP, allowing homodimerization on the DNA. Bioinformatic analysis demonstrated the SaBirA sequence used here is highly conserved amongst other S. aureus strains, implying this DNA-binding mechanism is widely employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiulia Satiaputra
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, Shenton Park, Western Australia, 6008, Australia
| | - Louise M Sternicki
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Andrew J Hayes
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Tara L Pukala
- School of Physical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Grant W Booker
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Keith E Shearwin
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Steven W Polyak
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia. .,School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia.
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12
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Xu L, Wang R, Cao H, Xu T, Han L, Huang C, Jia L. A facile method to oriented immobilization of His-tagged BirA on Co3+-NTA agarose beads. Enzyme Microb Technol 2019; 120:36-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2018.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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13
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Branon TC, Bosch JA, Sanchez AD, Udeshi ND, Svinkina T, Carr SA, Feldman JL, Perrimon N, Ting AY. Efficient proximity labeling in living cells and organisms with TurboID. Nat Biotechnol 2018; 36:880-887. [PMID: 30125270 PMCID: PMC6126969 DOI: 10.1038/nbt.4201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 922] [Impact Index Per Article: 153.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Protein interaction networks and protein compartmentalization underlie all signaling and regulatory processes in cells. Enzyme-catalyzed proximity labeling (PL) has emerged as a new approach to study the spatial and interaction characteristics of proteins in living cells. However, current PL methods require over 18 h of labeling time or utilize chemicals with limited cell permeability or high toxicity. We used yeast display-based directed evolution to engineer two promiscuous mutants of biotin ligase, TurboID and miniTurbo, which catalyze PL with much greater efficiency than BioID or BioID2, and enable 10-min PL in cells with non-toxic and easily deliverable biotin. Furthermore, TurboID extends biotin-based PL to flies and worms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tess C. Branon
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Departments of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Departments of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Justin A. Bosch
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ariana D. Sanchez
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | | | - Tanya Svinkina
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Steven A. Carr
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Norbert Perrimon
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alice Y. Ting
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Departments of Genetics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Departments of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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14
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Changeux JP, Christopoulos A. Allosteric modulation as a unifying mechanism for receptor function and regulation. Diabetes Obes Metab 2017; 19 Suppl 1:4-21. [PMID: 28880476 DOI: 10.1111/dom.12959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Four major receptor families enable cells to respond to chemical and physical signals from their proximal environment. The ligand- and voltage-gated ion channels, G-protein-coupled receptors, nuclear hormone receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases are all allosteric proteins that carry multiple, spatially distinct, yet conformationally linked ligand-binding sites. Recent studies point to common mechanisms governing the allosteric transitions of these receptors, including the impact of oligomerization, pre-existing and functionally distinct conformational ensembles, intrinsically disordered regions, and the occurrence of allosteric modulatory sites. Importantly, synthetic allosteric modulators are being discovered for these receptors, providing an enriched, yet challenging, landscape for novel therapeutics.
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MESH Headings
- Allosteric Regulation/drug effects
- Allosteric Site/drug effects
- Animals
- Binding Sites/drug effects
- Dimerization
- Drug Discovery/trends
- Drugs, Investigational/chemistry
- Drugs, Investigational/pharmacology
- Humans
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/agonists
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/antagonists & inhibitors
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/chemistry
- Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/metabolism
- Ligands
- Models, Molecular
- Protein Conformation/drug effects
- Protein Multimerization/drug effects
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/agonists
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/chemistry
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/agonists
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/chemistry
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/agonists
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/chemistry
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels/chemistry
- Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arthur Christopoulos
- Drug Discovery Biology and Department of Pharmacology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, VIC 3052 Parkville, Australia
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15
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Wang J, Custer G, Beckett D, Matysiak S. Long Distance Modulation of Disorder-to-Order Transitions in Protein Allostery. Biochemistry 2017; 56:4478-4488. [PMID: 28718281 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b00496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Elucidation of the molecular details of allosteric communication between distant sites in a protein is key to understanding and manipulating many biological regulatory processes. Although protein disorder is acknowledged to play an important thermodynamic role in allostery, the molecular mechanisms by which this disorder is harnessed for long distance communication are known for a limited number of systems. Transcription repression by the Escherichia coli biotin repressor, BirA, is allosterically activated by binding of the small molecule effector biotinoyl-5'-AMP. The effector acts by promoting BirA dimerization, which is a prerequisite for sequence-specific binding to the biotin biosynthetic operon operator sequence. A 30 Å distance separates the effector binding and dimerization surfaces in BirA, and previous studies indicate that allostery is mediated, in part, by disorder-to-order transitions on the two coupled sites. In this work, combined experimental and computational methods have been applied to investigate the molecular basis of allosteric communication in BirA. Double-mutant cycle analysis coupled with thermodynamic measurements indicates functional coupling between residues in disordered loops on the two distant surfaces. All atom molecular dynamics simulations reveal that this coupling occurs through long distance reciprocal modulation of the structure and dynamics of disorder-to-order transitions on the two surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingheng Wang
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Gregory Custer
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Silvina Matysiak
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering and ‡Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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16
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Wang J, Beckett D. A conserved regulatory mechanism in bifunctional biotin protein ligases. Protein Sci 2017; 26:1564-1573. [PMID: 28466579 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Class II bifunctional biotin protein ligases (BirA), which catalyze post-translational biotinylation and repress transcription initiation, are broadly distributed in eubacteria and archaea. However, it is unclear if these proteins all share the same molecular mechanism of transcription regulation. In Escherichia coli the corepressor biotinoyl-5'-AMP (bio-5'-AMP), which is also the intermediate in biotin transfer, promotes operator binding and resulting transcription repression by enhancing BirA dimerization. Like E. coli BirA (EcBirA), Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis BirA (Sa and BsBirA) repress transcription in vivo in a biotin-dependent manner. In this work, sedimentation equilibrium measurements were performed to investigate the molecular basis of this biotin-responsive transcription regulation. The results reveal that, as observed for EcBirA, Sa, and BsBirA dimerization reactions are significantly enhanced by bio-5'-AMP binding. Thus, the molecular mechanism of the Biotin Regulatory System is conserved in the biotin repressors from these three organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingheng Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742
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17
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Li P, Li J, Wang L, Di LJ. Proximity Labeling of Interacting Proteins: Application of BioID as a Discovery Tool. Proteomics 2017; 17. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201700002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Li
- Cancer Center; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Macau; Macau SAR of China
| | - Jingjing Li
- Cancer Center; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Macau; Macau SAR of China
| | - Li Wang
- Cancer Center; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Macau; Macau SAR of China
- Metabolomics Core; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Macau; Macau SAR of China
| | - Li-Jun Di
- Cancer Center; Faculty of Health Sciences; University of Macau; Macau SAR of China
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18
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Bond TEH, Sorenson AE, Schaeffer PM. Functional characterisation of Burkholderia pseudomallei biotin protein ligase: A toolkit for anti-melioidosis drug development. Microbiol Res 2017; 199:40-48. [PMID: 28454708 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Burkholderia pseudomallei (Bp) is the causative agent of melioidosis. The bacterium is responsible for 20% of community-acquired sepsis cases and 40% of sepsis-related mortalities in northeast Thailand, and is intrinsically resistant to aminoglycosides, macrolides, rifamycins, cephalosporins, and nonureidopenicillins. There is no vaccine and its diagnosis is problematic. Biotin protein ligase (BirA) which is essential for fatty acid synthesis has been proposed as a drug target in bacteria. Very few bacterial BirA have been characterized, and a better understanding of these enzymes is necessary to further assess their value as drug targets. BirA within the Burkholderia genus have not yet been investigated. We present for the first time the cloning, expression, purification and functional characterisation of the putative Bp BirA and orthologous B. thailandensis (Bt) biotin carboxyl carrier protein (BCCP) substrate. A GFP-tagged Bp BirA was produced and applied for the development of a high-throughput (HT) assay based on our differential scanning fluorimetry of GFP-tagged proteins (DSF-GTP) principle as well as an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Our biochemical data in combination with the new HT DSF-GTP and biotinylation activity assay could facilitate future drug screening efforts against this drug-resistant organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E H Bond
- Comparative Genomics Centre, James Cook University, DB21, James Cook Drive, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Alanna E Sorenson
- Comparative Genomics Centre, James Cook University, DB21, James Cook Drive, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
| | - Patrick M Schaeffer
- Comparative Genomics Centre, James Cook University, DB21, James Cook Drive, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.
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19
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Shammas SL. Mechanistic roles of protein disorder within transcription. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2017; 42:155-161. [PMID: 28262589 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the interactions of proteins involved in transcriptional regulation is critical to describing biological systems because they control the expression profile of the cell. Yet sadly they belong to a less well biophysically characterized subset of proteins; they frequently contain long disordered regions that are highly dynamic. A key question therefore is, why? What functional roles does protein disorder play in transcriptional regulation? Experimental data exemplifying these roles are starting to emerge, with common themes being enabling complexity within networks and quick responses. Most recently a role for disorder in mediating phase transitions of membrane-less organelles has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Shammas
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK.
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20
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Lohse J, Schindl A, Danda N, Williams CP, Kramer K, Kuster B, Witte MD, Médard G. Target and identify: triazene linker helps identify azidation sites of labelled proteins via click and cleave strategy. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:11929-11932. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc07001b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
A method for identifying probe modification of proteinsviatandem mass spectrometry was developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Lohse
- Chemical Biology II
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- 9747AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Alexandra Schindl
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics
- WZW
- Technical University of Munich
- 85354 Freising
- Germany
| | - Natasha Danda
- Molecular Cell Biology
- Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
- 9747AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Chris P. Williams
- Molecular Cell Biology
- Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute
- 9747AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Karl Kramer
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics
- WZW
- Technical University of Munich
- 85354 Freising
- Germany
| | - Bernhard Kuster
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics
- WZW
- Technical University of Munich
- 85354 Freising
- Germany
| | - Martin D. Witte
- Chemical Biology II
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry
- University of Groningen
- 9747AG Groningen
- The Netherlands
| | - Guillaume Médard
- Chair of Proteomics and Bioanalytics
- WZW
- Technical University of Munich
- 85354 Freising
- Germany
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21
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Allosteric Modulation as a Unifying Mechanism for Receptor Function and Regulation. Cell 2016; 166:1084-1102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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22
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Mechanisms of biotin-regulated gene expression in microbes. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2016; 1:17-24. [PMID: 29062923 PMCID: PMC5640590 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Revised: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Biotin is an essential micronutrient that acts as a co-factor for biotin-dependent metabolic enzymes. In bacteria, the supply of biotin can be achieved by de novo synthesis or import from exogenous sources. Certain bacteria are able to obtain biotin through both mechanisms while others can only fulfill their biotin requirement through de novo synthesis. Inability to fulfill their cellular demand for biotin can have detrimental consequences on cell viability and virulence. Therefore understanding the transcriptional mechanisms that regulate biotin biosynthesis and transport will extend our knowledge about bacterial survival and metabolic adaptation during pathogenesis when the supply of biotin is limited. The most extensively characterized protein that regulates biotin synthesis and uptake is BirA. In certain bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, BirA is a bi-functional protein that serves as a transcriptional repressor to regulate biotin biosynthesis genes, as well as acting as a ligase to catalyze the biotinylation of biotin-dependent enzymes. Recent studies have identified two other proteins that also regulate biotin synthesis and transport, namely BioQ and BioR. This review summarizes the different transcriptional repressors and their mechanism of action. Moreover, the ability to regulate the expression of target genes through the activity of a vitamin, such as biotin, may have biotechnological applications in synthetic biology.
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23
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Cressman WJ, Beckett D. Heat Capacity Changes and Disorder-to-Order Transitions in Allosteric Activation. Biochemistry 2015; 55:243-52. [PMID: 26678378 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.5b00949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Allosteric coupling in proteins is ubiquitous but incompletely understood, particularly in systems characterized by coupling over large distances. Binding of the allosteric effector, bio-5'-AMP, to the Escherichia coli biotin protein ligase, BirA, enhances the protein's dimerization free energy by -4 kcal/mol. Previous studies revealed that disorder-to-order transitions at the effector binding and dimerization sites, which are separated by 33 Å, are integral to functional coupling. Perturbations to the transition at the ligand binding site alter both ligand binding and coupled dimerization. Alanine substitutions in four loops on the dimerization surface yield a range of energetic effects on dimerization. A glycine to alanine substitution at position 142 in one of these loops results in a complete loss of allosteric coupling, disruption of the disorder-to-order transitions at both functional sites, and a decreased affinity for the effector. In this work, allosteric communication between the effector binding and dimerization surfaces in BirA was further investigated by performing isothermal titration calorimetry measurements on nine proteins with alanine substitutions in three dimerization surface loops. In contrast to BirAG142A, at 20 °C all variants bind to bio-5'-AMP with free energies indistinguishable from that measured for wild-type BirA. However, the majority of the variants exhibit altered heat capacity changes for effector binding. Moreover, the ΔCp values correlate with the dimerization free energies of the effector-bound proteins. These thermodynamic results, combined with structural information, indicate that allosteric activation of the BirA monomer involves formation of a network of intramolecular interactions on the dimerization surface in response to bio-5'-AMP binding at the distant effector binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Cressman
- Center for Biomolecular Structure and Organization, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Dorothy Beckett
- Center for Biomolecular Structure and Organization, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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24
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Bondos SE, Swint-Kruse L, Matthews KS. Flexibility and Disorder in Gene Regulation: LacI/GalR and Hox Proteins. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:24669-77. [PMID: 26342073 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r115.685032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
To modulate transcription, a variety of input signals must be sensed by genetic regulatory proteins. In these proteins, flexibility and disorder are emerging as common themes. Prokaryotic regulators generally have short, flexible segments, whereas eukaryotic regulators have extended regions that lack predicted secondary structure (intrinsic disorder). Two examples illustrate the impact of flexibility and disorder on gene regulation: the prokaryotic LacI/GalR family, with detailed information from studies on LacI, and the eukaryotic family of Hox proteins, with specific insights from investigations of Ultrabithorax (Ubx). The widespread importance of structural disorder in gene regulatory proteins may derive from the need for flexibility in signal response and, particularly in eukaryotes, in protein partner selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Bondos
- From the Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Liskin Swint-Kruse
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, the University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, and
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