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Qi M, Chen TT, Li L, Gao PP, Li N, Zhang SH, Wei W, Sun WY. Insight into the regulatory mechanism of β-arrestin2 and its emerging role in diseases. Br J Pharmacol 2024; 181:3019-3038. [PMID: 38961617 DOI: 10.1111/bph.16488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 05/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024] Open
Abstract
β-arrestin2, a member of the arrestin family, mediates the desensitization and internalization of most G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and functions as a scaffold protein in signalling pathways. Previous studies have demonstrated that β-arrestin2 expression is dysregulated in malignant tumours, fibrotic diseases, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases, suggesting its pathological roles. Transcription and post-transcriptional modifications can affect the expression of β-arrestin2. Furthermore, post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation and S-nitrosylation affect the cellular localization of β-arrestin2 and its interaction with downstream signalling molecules, which further regulate the activity of β-arrestin2. This review summarizes the structure and function of β-arrestin2 and reveals the mechanisms involved in the regulation of β-arrestin2 at multiple levels. Additionally, recent studies on the role of β-arrestin2 in some major diseases and its therapeutic prospects have been discussed to provide a reference for the development of drugs targeting β-arrestin2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Qi
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Ting-Ting Chen
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Ling Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Ping-Ping Gao
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Nan Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Shi-Hao Zhang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Wu-Yi Sun
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Anhui Collaborative Innovation Center of Anhui-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Hefei, China
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2
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Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. GPCR-dependent and -independent arrestin signaling. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2024; 45:639-650. [PMID: 38906769 PMCID: PMC11227395 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2024.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Biological activity of free arrestins is often overlooked. Based on available data, we compare arrestin-mediated signaling that requires and does not require binding to G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Receptor-bound arrestins activate ERK1/2, Src, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Yet, arrestin-3 regulation of Src family member Fgr does not appear to involve receptors. Free arrestin-3 facilitates the activation of JNK family kinases, preferentially binds E3 ubiquitin ligases Mdm2 and parkin, and facilitates parkin-dependent mitophagy. The binding of arrestins to microtubules and calmodulin and their function in focal adhesion disassembly and apoptosis also do not involve receptors. Biased GPCR ligands and the phosphorylation barcode can only affect receptor-dependent arrestin signaling. Thus, elucidation of receptor dependence or independence of arrestin functions has important scientific and therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vsevolod V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 27232, USA.
| | - Eugenia V Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 27232, USA
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3
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Wess J, Oteng AB, Rivera-Gonzalez O, Gurevich EV, Gurevich VV. β-Arrestins: Structure, Function, Physiology, and Pharmacological Perspectives. Pharmacol Rev 2023; 75:854-884. [PMID: 37028945 PMCID: PMC10441628 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.121.000302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The two β-arrestins, β-arrestin-1 and -2 (systematic names: arrestin-2 and -3, respectively), are multifunctional intracellular proteins that regulate the activity of a very large number of cellular signaling pathways and physiologic functions. The two proteins were discovered for their ability to disrupt signaling via G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) via binding to the activated receptors. However, it is now well recognized that both β-arrestins can also act as direct modulators of numerous cellular processes via either GPCR-dependent or -independent mechanisms. Recent structural, biophysical, and biochemical studies have provided novel insights into how β-arrestins bind to activated GPCRs and downstream effector proteins. Studies with β-arrestin mutant mice have identified numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes regulated by β-arrestin-1 and/or -2. Following a short summary of recent structural studies, this review primarily focuses on β-arrestin-regulated physiologic functions, with particular focus on the central nervous system and the roles of β-arrestins in carcinogenesis and key metabolic processes including the maintenance of glucose and energy homeostasis. This review also highlights potential therapeutic implications of these studies and discusses strategies that could prove useful for targeting specific β-arrestin-regulated signaling pathways for therapeutic purposes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The two β-arrestins, structurally closely related intracellular proteins that are evolutionarily highly conserved, have emerged as multifunctional proteins able to regulate a vast array of cellular and physiological functions. The outcome of studies with β-arrestin mutant mice and cultured cells, complemented by novel insights into β-arrestin structure and function, should pave the way for the development of novel classes of therapeutically useful drugs capable of regulating specific β-arrestin functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Wess
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland (J.W., A.-B.O., O.R.-G.); and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (E.V.G., V.V.G.)
| | - Antwi-Boasiako Oteng
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland (J.W., A.-B.O., O.R.-G.); and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (E.V.G., V.V.G.)
| | - Osvaldo Rivera-Gonzalez
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland (J.W., A.-B.O., O.R.-G.); and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (E.V.G., V.V.G.)
| | - Eugenia V Gurevich
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland (J.W., A.-B.O., O.R.-G.); and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (E.V.G., V.V.G.)
| | - Vsevolod V Gurevich
- Molecular Signaling Section, Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland (J.W., A.-B.O., O.R.-G.); and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (E.V.G., V.V.G.)
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4
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Sarma P, Carino CMC, Seetharama D, Pandey S, Dwivedi-Agnihotri H, Rui X, Cao Y, Kawakami K, Kumari P, Chen YC, Luker KE, Yadav PN, Luker GD, Laporte SA, Chen X, Inoue A, Shukla AK. Molecular insights into intrinsic transducer-coupling bias in the CXCR4-CXCR7 system. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4808. [PMID: 37558722 PMCID: PMC10412580 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40482-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemokine receptors constitute an important subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), and they are critically involved in a broad range of immune response mechanisms. Ligand promiscuity among these receptors makes them an interesting target to explore multiple aspects of biased agonism. Here, we comprehensively characterize two chemokine receptors namely, CXCR4 and CXCR7, in terms of their transducer-coupling and downstream signaling upon their stimulation by a common chemokine agonist, CXCL12, and a small molecule agonist, VUF11207. We observe that CXCR7 lacks G-protein-coupling while maintaining robust βarr recruitment with a major contribution of GRK5/6. On the other hand, CXCR4 displays robust G-protein activation as expected but exhibits significantly reduced βarr-coupling compared to CXCR7. These two receptors induce distinct βarr conformations even when activated by the same agonist, and CXCR7, unlike CXCR4, fails to activate ERK1/2 MAP kinase. We also identify a key contribution of a single phosphorylation site in CXCR7 for βarr recruitment and endosomal localization. Our study provides molecular insights into intrinsic-bias encoded in the CXCR4-CXCR7 system with broad implications for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parishmita Sarma
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, 208016, India
| | - Carlo Marion C Carino
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Deeksha Seetharama
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, 208016, India
| | - Shubhi Pandey
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, 208016, India
| | - Hemlata Dwivedi-Agnihotri
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, 208016, India
| | - Xue Rui
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Life Science, Changzhou University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, 213164, China
| | - Yubo Cao
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Kouki Kawakami
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Poonam Kumari
- Neuroscience and Ageing Biology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute Sector 10, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Yu-Chih Chen
- Department of Computational and Systems Biology, Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Kathryn E Luker
- Center for Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Prem N Yadav
- Neuroscience and Ageing Biology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute Sector 10, Sitapur Road, Lucknow, 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Gary D Luker
- Center for Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Stéphane A Laporte
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
- Department of Medicine, McGill University Health Center, McGill University, Montréal, QC, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - Xin Chen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Life Science, Changzhou University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, 213164, China
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Arun K Shukla
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, 208016, India.
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Byer AS, Pei X, Patterson MG, Ando N. Small-angle X-ray scattering studies of enzymes. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2023; 72:102232. [PMID: 36462455 PMCID: PMC9992928 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2022.102232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Enzyme function requires conformational changes to achieve substrate binding, domain rearrangements, and interactions with partner proteins, but these movements are difficult to observe. Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) is a versatile structural technique that can probe such conformational changes under solution conditions that are physiologically relevant. Although it is generally considered a low-resolution structural technique, when used to study conformational changes as a function of time, ligand binding, or protein interactions, SAXS can provide rich insight into enzyme behavior, including subtle domain movements. In this perspective, we highlight recent uses of SAXS to probe structural enzyme changes upon ligand and partner-protein binding and discuss tools for signal deconvolution of complex protein solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S Byer
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Xiaokun Pei
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Michael G Patterson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Nozomi Ando
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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6
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Perry-Hauser NA, Kaoud TS, Stoy H, Zhan X, Chen Q, Dalby KN, Iverson TM, Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. Short Arrestin-3-Derived Peptides Activate JNK3 in Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158679. [PMID: 35955810 PMCID: PMC9368909 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Arrestins were first discovered as suppressors of G protein-mediated signaling by G protein-coupled receptors. It was later demonstrated that arrestins also initiate several signaling branches, including mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades. Arrestin-3-dependent activation of the JNK family can be recapitulated with peptide fragments, which are monofunctional elements distilled from this multi-functional arrestin protein. Here, we use maltose-binding protein fusions of arrestin-3-derived peptides to identify arrestin elements that bind kinases of the ASK1-MKK4/7-JNK3 cascade and the shortest peptide facilitating JNK signaling. We identified a 16-residue arrestin-3-derived peptide expressed as a Venus fusion that leads to activation of JNK3α2 in cells. The strength of the binding to the kinases does not correlate with peptide activity. The ASK1-MKK4/7-JNK3 cascade has been implicated in neuronal apoptosis. While inhibitors of MAP kinases exist, short peptides are the first small molecule tools that can activate MAP kinases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tamer S. Kaoud
- Division of Chemical Biology & Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Henriette Stoy
- Institute of Molecular Cancer Research, University of Zurich, Ramistrasse 71, CH-8006 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xuanzhi Zhan
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Qiuyan Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Kevin N. Dalby
- Division of Chemical Biology & Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Tina M. Iverson
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Vsevolod V. Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Correspondence: (V.V.G.); (E.V.G.)
| | - Eugenia V. Gurevich
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
- Correspondence: (V.V.G.); (E.V.G.)
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7
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Gurevich VV, Gurevich EV. Solo vs. Chorus: Monomers and Oligomers of Arrestin Proteins. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137253. [PMID: 35806256 PMCID: PMC9266314 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Three out of four subtypes of arrestin proteins expressed in mammals self-associate, each forming oligomers of a distinct kind. Monomers and oligomers have different subcellular localization and distinct biological functions. Here we summarize existing evidence regarding arrestin oligomerization and discuss specific functions of monomeric and oligomeric forms, although too few of the latter are known. The data on arrestins highlight biological importance of oligomerization of signaling proteins. Distinct modes of oligomerization might be an important contributing factor to the functional differences among highly homologous members of the arrestin protein family.
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8
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Emerging structural insights into GPCR-β-arrestin interaction and functional outcomes. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2022; 75:102406. [PMID: 35738165 PMCID: PMC7614528 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2022.102406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Agonist-induced recruitment of β-arrestins (βarrs) to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) plays a central role in regulating the spatio-temporal aspects of GPCR signaling. Several recent studies have provided novel structural and functional insights into our understanding of GPCR-βarr interaction, subsequent βarr activation and resulting functional outcomes. In this review, we discuss these recent advances with a particular emphasis on recognition of receptor-bound phosphates by βarrs, the emerging concept of spatial positioning of key phosphorylation sites, the conformational transition in βarrs during partial to full-engagement, and structural differences driving functional outcomes of βarr isoforms. We also highlight the key directions that require further investigation going forward to fully understand the structural mechanisms driving βarr activation and functional responses.
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9
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Asher WB, Terry DS, Gregorio GGA, Kahsai AW, Borgia A, Xie B, Modak A, Zhu Y, Jang W, Govindaraju A, Huang LY, Inoue A, Lambert NA, Gurevich VV, Shi L, Lefkowitz RJ, Blanchard SC, Javitch JA. GPCR-mediated β-arrestin activation deconvoluted with single-molecule precision. Cell 2022; 185:1661-1675.e16. [PMID: 35483373 PMCID: PMC9191627 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.03.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
β-arrestins bind G protein-coupled receptors to terminate G protein signaling and to facilitate other downstream signaling pathways. Using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging, we show that β-arrestin is strongly autoinhibited in its basal state. Its engagement with a phosphopeptide mimicking phosphorylated receptor tail efficiently releases the β-arrestin tail from its N domain to assume distinct conformations. Unexpectedly, we find that β-arrestin binding to phosphorylated receptor, with a phosphorylation barcode identical to the isolated phosphopeptide, is highly inefficient and that agonist-promoted receptor activation is required for β-arrestin activation, consistent with the release of a sequestered receptor C tail. These findings, together with focused cellular investigations, reveal that agonism and receptor C-tail release are specific determinants of the rate and efficiency of β-arrestin activation by phosphorylated receptor. We infer that receptor phosphorylation patterns, in combination with receptor agonism, synergistically establish the strength and specificity with which diverse, downstream β-arrestin-mediated events are directed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley B Asher
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Daniel S Terry
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - G Glenn A Gregorio
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alem W Kahsai
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Alessandro Borgia
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Bing Xie
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Arnab Modak
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Ying Zhu
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Wonjo Jang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Alekhya Govindaraju
- Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Li-Yin Huang
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Asuka Inoue
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Nevin A Lambert
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Georgia, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | | | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Section, Molecular Targets and Medications Discovery Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Robert J Lefkowitz
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Scott C Blanchard
- Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA; Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - Jonathan A Javitch
- Department of Psychiatry, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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