1
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Müller L, Hoppe T. UPS-dependent strategies of protein quality control degradation. Trends Biochem Sci 2024:S0968-0004(24)00149-X. [PMID: 38945729 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2024.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
The degradation of damaged proteins is critical for tissue integrity and organismal health because damaged proteins have a high propensity to form aggregates. E3 ubiquitin ligases are key regulators of protein quality control (PQC) and mediate the selective degradation of damaged proteins, a process termed 'PQC degradation' (PQCD). The degradation signals (degrons) that trigger PQCD are based on hydrophobic sites that are normally buried within the native protein structure. However, an open question is how PQCD-specialized E3 ligases distinguish between transiently misfolded proteins, which can be efficiently refolded, and permanently damaged proteins, which must be degraded. While significant progress has been made in characterizing degradation determinants, understanding the key regulatory signals of cellular and organismal PQCD pathways remains a challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Müller
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Thorsten Hoppe
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany; Cologne Excellence Cluster on Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany; Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne (CMMC), Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
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2
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Clausen L, Okarmus J, Voutsinos V, Meyer M, Lindorff-Larsen K, Hartmann-Petersen R. PRKN-linked familial Parkinson's disease: cellular and molecular mechanisms of disease-linked variants. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:223. [PMID: 38767677 PMCID: PMC11106057 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-024-05262-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common and incurable neurodegenerative disorder that arises from the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and is mainly characterized by progressive loss of motor function. Monogenic familial PD is associated with highly penetrant variants in specific genes, notably the PRKN gene, where homozygous or compound heterozygous loss-of-function variants predominate. PRKN encodes Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase important for protein ubiquitination and mitophagy of damaged mitochondria. Accordingly, Parkin plays a central role in mitochondrial quality control but is itself also subject to a strict protein quality control system that rapidly eliminates certain disease-linked Parkin variants. Here, we summarize the cellular and molecular functions of Parkin, highlighting the various mechanisms by which PRKN gene variants result in loss-of-function. We emphasize the importance of high-throughput assays and computational tools for the clinical classification of PRKN gene variants and how detailed insights into the pathogenic mechanisms of PRKN gene variants may impact the development of personalized therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Clausen
- Department of Biology, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Justyna Okarmus
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark
| | - Vasileios Voutsinos
- Department of Biology, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Meyer
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, 5000, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, BRIDGE, Brain Research Inter Disciplinary Guided Excellence, University of Southern Denmark, 5230, Odense, Denmark
| | - Kresten Lindorff-Larsen
- Department of Biology, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rasmus Hartmann-Petersen
- Department of Biology, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, 2200, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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3
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Grønbæk-Thygesen M, Voutsinos V, Johansson KE, Schulze TK, Cagiada M, Pedersen L, Clausen L, Nariya S, Powell RL, Stein A, Fowler DM, Lindorff-Larsen K, Hartmann-Petersen R. Deep mutational scanning reveals a correlation between degradation and toxicity of thousands of aspartoacylase variants. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4026. [PMID: 38740822 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48481-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Unstable proteins are prone to form non-native interactions with other proteins and thereby may become toxic. To mitigate this, destabilized proteins are targeted by the protein quality control network. Here we present systematic studies of the cytosolic aspartoacylase, ASPA, where variants are linked to Canavan disease, a lethal neurological disorder. We determine the abundance of 6152 of the 6260 ( ~ 98%) possible single amino acid substitutions and nonsense ASPA variants in human cells. Most low abundance variants are degraded through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and become toxic upon prolonged expression. The data correlates with predicted changes in thermodynamic stability, evolutionary conservation, and separate disease-linked variants from benign variants. Mapping of degradation signals (degrons) shows that these are often buried and the C-terminal region functions as a degron. The data can be used to interpret Canavan disease variants and provide insight into the relationship between protein stability, degradation and cell fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Grønbæk-Thygesen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vasileios Voutsinos
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristoffer E Johansson
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thea K Schulze
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matteo Cagiada
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Line Pedersen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lene Clausen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Snehal Nariya
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Rachel L Powell
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Amelie Stein
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Douglas M Fowler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Kresten Lindorff-Larsen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Rasmus Hartmann-Petersen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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4
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Clausen L, Voutsinos V, Cagiada M, Johansson KE, Grønbæk-Thygesen M, Nariya S, Powell RL, Have MKN, Oestergaard VH, Stein A, Fowler DM, Lindorff-Larsen K, Hartmann-Petersen R. A mutational atlas for Parkin proteostasis. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1541. [PMID: 38378758 PMCID: PMC10879094 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45829-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Proteostasis can be disturbed by mutations affecting folding and stability of the encoded protein. An example is the ubiquitin ligase Parkin, where gene variants result in autosomal recessive Parkinsonism. To uncover the pathological mechanism and provide comprehensive genotype-phenotype information, variant abundance by massively parallel sequencing (VAMP-seq) is leveraged to quantify the abundance of Parkin variants in cultured human cells. The resulting mutational map, covering 9219 out of the 9300 possible single-site amino acid substitutions and nonsense Parkin variants, shows that most low abundance variants are proteasome targets and are located within the structured domains of the protein. Half of the known disease-linked variants are found at low abundance. Systematic mapping of degradation signals (degrons) reveals an exposed degron region proximal to the so-called "activation element". This work provides examples of how missense variants may cause degradation either via destabilization of the native protein, or by introducing local signals for degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Clausen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vasileios Voutsinos
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matteo Cagiada
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristoffer E Johansson
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Martin Grønbæk-Thygesen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Snehal Nariya
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Rachel L Powell
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Magnus K N Have
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Amelie Stein
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Douglas M Fowler
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Kresten Lindorff-Larsen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Rasmus Hartmann-Petersen
- Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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5
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Tesei G, Trolle AI, Jonsson N, Betz J, Knudsen FE, Pesce F, Johansson KE, Lindorff-Larsen K. Conformational ensembles of the human intrinsically disordered proteome. Nature 2024; 626:897-904. [PMID: 38297118 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-07004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Intrinsically disordered proteins and regions (collectively, IDRs) are pervasive across proteomes in all kingdoms of life, help to shape biological functions and are involved in numerous diseases. IDRs populate a diverse set of transiently formed structures and defy conventional sequence-structure-function relationships1. Developments in protein science have made it possible to predict the three-dimensional structures of folded proteins at the proteome scale2. By contrast, there is a lack of knowledge about the conformational properties of IDRs, partly because the sequences of disordered proteins are poorly conserved and also because only a few of these proteins have been characterized experimentally. The inability to predict structural properties of IDRs across the proteome has limited our understanding of the functional roles of IDRs and how evolution shapes them. As a supplement to previous structural studies of individual IDRs3, we developed an efficient molecular model to generate conformational ensembles of IDRs and thereby to predict their conformational properties from sequences4,5. Here we use this model to simulate nearly all of the IDRs in the human proteome. Examining conformational ensembles of 28,058 IDRs, we show how chain compaction is correlated with cellular function and localization. We provide insights into how sequence features relate to chain compaction and, using a machine-learning model trained on our simulation data, show the conservation of conformational properties across orthologues. Our results recapitulate observations from previous studies of individual protein systems and exemplify how to link-at the proteome scale-conformational ensembles with cellular function and localization, amino acid sequence, evolutionary conservation and disease variants. Our freely available database of conformational properties will encourage further experimental investigation and enable the generation of hypotheses about the biological roles and evolution of IDRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Tesei
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Anna Ida Trolle
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nicolas Jonsson
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Johannes Betz
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Frederik E Knudsen
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Francesco Pesce
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristoffer E Johansson
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kresten Lindorff-Larsen
- Structural Biology and NMR Laboratory, Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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6
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Kong KYE, Shankar S, Rühle F, Khmelinskii A. Orphan quality control by an SCF ubiquitin ligase directed to pervasive C-degrons. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8363. [PMID: 38102142 PMCID: PMC10724198 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44096-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Selective protein degradation typically involves substrate recognition via short linear motifs known as degrons. Various degrons can be found at protein termini from bacteria to mammals. While N-degrons have been extensively studied, our understanding of C-degrons is still limited. Towards a comprehensive understanding of eukaryotic C-degron pathways, here we perform an unbiased survey of C-degrons in budding yeast. We identify over 5000 potential C-degrons by stability profiling of random peptide libraries and of the yeast C‑terminome. Combining machine learning, high-throughput mutagenesis and genetic screens reveals that the SCF ubiquitin ligase targets ~40% of degrons using a single F-box substrate receptor Das1. Although sequence-specific, Das1 is highly promiscuous, recognizing a variety of C-degron motifs. By screening for full-length substrates, we implicate SCFDas1 in degradation of orphan protein complex subunits. Altogether, this work highlights the variety of C-degron pathways in eukaryotes and uncovers how an SCF/C-degron pathway of broad specificity contributes to proteostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Frank Rühle
- Institute of Molecular Biology (IMB), Mainz, Germany
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7
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Hasenjäger S, Bologna A, Essen LO, Spadaccini R, Taxis C. C-terminal sequence stability profiling in Saccharomyces cerevisiae reveals protective protein quality control pathways. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105166. [PMID: 37595870 PMCID: PMC10493509 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein quality control (PQC) mechanisms are essential for degradation of misfolded or dysfunctional proteins. An essential part of protein homeostasis is recognition of defective proteins by PQC components and their elimination by the ubiquitin-proteasome system, often concentrating on protein termini as indicators of protein integrity. Changes in amino acid composition of C-terminal ends arise through protein disintegration, alternative splicing, or during the translation step of protein synthesis from premature termination or translational stop-codon read-through. We characterized reporter protein stability using light-controlled exposure of the random C-terminal peptide collection (CtPC) in budding yeast revealing stabilizing and destabilizing features of amino acids at positions -5 to -1 of the C terminus. The (de)stabilization properties of CtPC-degrons depend on amino acid identity, position, as well as composition of the C-terminal sequence and are transferable. Evolutionary pressure toward stable proteins in yeast is evidenced by amino acid residues under-represented in cytosolic and nuclear proteins at corresponding C-terminal positions, but over-represented in unstable CtPC-degrons, and vice versa. Furthermore, analysis of translational stop-codon read-through peptides suggested that such extended proteins have destabilizing C termini. PQC pathways targeting CtPC-degrons involved the ubiquitin-protein ligase Doa10 and the cullin-RING E3 ligase SCFDas1 (Skp1-Cullin-F-box protein). Overall, our data suggest a proteome protection mechanism that targets proteins with unnatural C termini by recognizing a surprisingly large number of C-terminal sequence variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Hasenjäger
- Department of Biology/Genetics, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Andrea Bologna
- Department of Science and Technology, Universita' Degli Studi Del Sannio, Benevento, Italy
| | - Lars-Oliver Essen
- Department of Chemistry/Biochemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Roberta Spadaccini
- Department of Science and Technology, Universita' Degli Studi Del Sannio, Benevento, Italy; Department of Chemistry/Biochemistry, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Christof Taxis
- Department of Medicine, Health and Medical University, Erfurt, Germany.
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8
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Mashahreh B, Armony S, Ravid T. yGPS-P: A Yeast-Based Peptidome Screen for Studying Quality Control-Associated Proteolysis. Biomolecules 2023; 13:987. [PMID: 37371568 DOI: 10.3390/biom13060987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Quality control-associated proteolysis (QCAP) is a fundamental mechanism that maintains cellular homeostasis by eliminating improperly folded proteins. In QCAP, the exposure of normally hidden cis-acting protein sequences, termed degrons, triggers misfolded protein ubiquitination, resulting in their elimination by the proteasome. To identify the landscape of QCAP degrons and learn about their unique features we have developed an unbiased screening method in yeast, termed yGPS-P, which facilitates the determination of thousands of proteome-derived sequences that enhance proteolysis. Here we describe the fundamental features of the yGPS-P method and provide a detailed protocol for its use as a tool for degron search. This includes the cloning of a synthetic peptidome library in a fluorescence-based reporter system, and data acquisition, which entails the combination of Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). We also provide guidelines for data extraction and analysis and for the application of a machine-learning algorithm that established the evolutionarily conserved amino acid preferences and secondary structure propensities of QCAP degrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bayan Mashahreh
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Shir Armony
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Tommer Ravid
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
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9
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Abildgaard AB, Voutsinos V, Petersen SD, Larsen FB, Kampmeyer C, Johansson KE, Stein A, Ravid T, Andréasson C, Jensen MK, Lindorff-Larsen K, Hartmann-Petersen R. HSP70-binding motifs function as protein quality control degrons. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:32. [PMID: 36609589 PMCID: PMC11072582 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04679-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Protein quality control (PQC) degrons are short protein segments that target misfolded proteins for proteasomal degradation, and thus protect cells against the accumulation of potentially toxic non-native proteins. Studies have shown that PQC degrons are hydrophobic and rarely contain negatively charged residues, features which are shared with chaperone-binding regions. Here we explore the notion that chaperone-binding regions may function as PQC degrons. When directly tested, we found that a canonical Hsp70-binding motif (the APPY peptide) functioned as a dose-dependent PQC degron both in yeast and in human cells. In yeast, Hsp70, Hsp110, Fes1, and the E3 Ubr1 target the APPY degron. Screening revealed that the sequence space within the chaperone-binding region of APPY that is compatible with degron function is vast. We find that the number of exposed Hsp70-binding sites in the yeast proteome correlates with a reduced protein abundance and half-life. Our results suggest that when protein folding fails, chaperone-binding sites may operate as PQC degrons, and that the sequence properties leading to PQC-linked degradation therefore overlap with those of chaperone binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda B Abildgaard
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vasileios Voutsinos
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren D Petersen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Fia B Larsen
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Caroline Kampmeyer
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristoffer E Johansson
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Amelie Stein
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tommer Ravid
- Department of Biological Chemistry, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Claes Andréasson
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael K Jensen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kresten Lindorff-Larsen
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Rasmus Hartmann-Petersen
- Department of Biology, The Linderstrøm-Lang Centre for Protein Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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