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Unalan I, Occhipinti I, Miola M, Vernè E, Boccaccini AR. Development of Super-Paramagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticle-Coated Melt Electrowritten Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications. Macromol Biosci 2024; 24:e2300397. [PMID: 37902248 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202300397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Polycaprolactone (PCL) is usually the material chosen for melt electrowriting (MEW) due to its biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and melt processability. This work first investigates the effect of different processing parameters to obtain optimum PCL-MEW scaffolds. Secondly, to increase PCL`s hydrophilicity and cell affinity, and to enable coating with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and silica-coated-SPIONs (Si-SPIONs), the scaffolds are modified with alkaline surface treatment. Finally, SPIONs and Si-SPIONs are successfully coated on MEW scaffolds. Results show that reproducible scaffolds are fabricated. Additionally, the alkaline treatment does not change the three-dimensional morphology of scaffolds while reducing fiber diameter. Furthermore, SEM images and ATR-FTIR results confirmed that SPIONs and Si-SPIONs-were coated on scaffolds. A cytocompatibility assay showed a non-toxic effect on MG-63 osteoblast-like cells in all scaffolds. Additionally, higher MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblastic cell adhesion efficiency and proliferation are achieved for the alkaline-treated scaffolds and SPIONs/Si-SPIONs-coated scaffolds. All samples demonstrated the ability to generate heat, useful for hyperthermia-treatment, when subjected to an alternating magnetic field. Overall, the findings suggest that the strategy of coating PCL-MEW scaffolds with SPIONs/Si-SPIONs has the potential to improve scaffold performance for biomedical applications, especially for producing magnetically responsive MEW scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irem Unalan
- Institute of Biomaterials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauerstraße 6, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Ilenia Occhipinti
- Institute of Materials Physics and Engineering, Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, 10129, Italy
| | - Marta Miola
- Institute of Materials Physics and Engineering, Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, 10129, Italy
| | - Enrica Vernè
- Institute of Materials Physics and Engineering, Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, Torino, 10129, Italy
| | - Aldo R Boccaccini
- Institute of Biomaterials, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Cauerstraße 6, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
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Daghrery A, de Souza Araújo IJ, Castilho M, Malda J, Bottino MC. Unveiling the potential of melt electrowriting in regenerative dental medicine. Acta Biomater 2023; 156:88-109. [PMID: 35026478 PMCID: PMC11046422 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
For nearly three decades, tissue engineering strategies have been leveraged to devise effective therapeutics for dental, oral, and craniofacial (DOC) regenerative medicine and treat permanent deformities caused by many debilitating health conditions. In this regard, additive manufacturing (AM) allows the fabrication of personalized scaffolds that have the potential to recapitulate native tissue morphology and biomechanics through the utilization of several 3D printing techniques. Among these, melt electrowriting (MEW) is a versatile direct electrowriting process that permits the development of well-organized fibrous constructs with fiber resolutions ranging from micron to nanoscale. Indeed, MEW offers great prospects for the fabrication of scaffolds mimicking tissue specificity, healthy and pathophysiological microenvironments, personalized multi-scale transitions, and functional interfaces for tissue regeneration in medicine and dentistry. Excitingly, recent work has demonstrated the potential of converging MEW with other AM technologies and/or cell-laden scaffold fabrication (bioprinting) as a favorable route to overcome some of the limitations of MEW for DOC tissue regeneration. In particular, such convergency fabrication strategy has opened great promise in terms of supporting multi-tissue compartmentalization and predetermined cell commitment. In this review, we offer a critical appraisal on the latest advances in MEW and its convergence with other biofabrication technologies for DOC tissue regeneration. We first present the engineering principles of MEW and the most relevant design aspects for transition from flat to more anatomically relevant 3D structures while printing highly-ordered constructs. Secondly, we provide a thorough assessment of contemporary achievements using MEW scaffolds to study and guide soft and hard tissue regeneration, and draw a parallel on how to extrapolate proven concepts for applications in DOC tissue regeneration. Finally, we offer a combined engineering/clinical perspective on the fabrication of hierarchically organized MEW scaffold architectures and the future translational potential of site-specific, single-step scaffold fabrication to address tissue and tissue interfaces in dental, oral, and craniofacial regenerative medicine. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Melt electrowriting (MEW) techniques can further replicate the complexity of native tissues and could be the foundation for novel personalized (defect-specific) and tissue-specific clinical approaches in regenerative dental medicine. This work presents a unique perspective on how MEW has been translated towards the application of highly-ordered personalized multi-scale and functional interfaces for tissue regeneration, targeting the transition from flat to anatomically-relevant three-dimensional structures. Furthermore, we address the value of convergence of biofabrication technologies to overcome the traditional manufacturing limitations provided by multi-tissue complexity. Taken together, this work offers abundant engineering and clinical perspectives on the fabrication of hierarchically MEW architectures aiming towards site-specific implants to address complex tissue damage in regenerative dental medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arwa Daghrery
- Department of Cardiology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, University of Michigan, School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States; Department of Restorative Dental Sciences, School of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Isaac J de Souza Araújo
- Department of Cardiology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, University of Michigan, School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Miguel Castilho
- Regenerative Medicine Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Jos Malda
- Regenerative Medicine Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Marco C Bottino
- Department of Cardiology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, University of Michigan, School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States.
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3
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Viola M, Piluso S, Groll J, Vermonden T, Malda J, Castilho M. The Importance of Interfaces in Multi-Material Biofabricated Tissue Structures. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2101021. [PMID: 34510824 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202101021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Biofabrication exploits additive manufacturing techniques for creating 3D structures with a precise geometry that aim to mimic a physiological cellular environment and to develop the growth of native tissues. The most recent approaches of 3D biofabrication integrate multiple technologies into a single biofabrication platform combining different materials within different length scales to achieve improved construct functionality. However, the importance of interfaces between the different material phases, has not been adequately explored. This is known to determine material's interaction and ultimately mechanical and biological performance of biofabricated parts. In this review, this gap is bridged by critically examining the interface between different material phases in (bio)fabricated structures, with a particular focus on how interfacial interactions can compromise or define the mechanical (and biological) properties of the engineered structures. It is believed that the importance of interfacial properties between the different constituents of a composite material, deserves particular attention in its role in modulating the final characteristics of 3D tissue-like structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Viola
- Department of Orthopeadics University Medical Center Heidelberglaan 100 Utrecht 3508 GA The Netherlands
- Department of Pharmaceutics Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS) Faculty of Science Utrecht University Utrecht 3508 TB The Netherlands
| | - Susanna Piluso
- Department of Orthopeadics University Medical Center Heidelberglaan 100 Utrecht 3508 GA The Netherlands
| | - Jürgen Groll
- Department of Functional Materials in Medicine and Dentistry at the Institute of Functional Materials and Biofabrication and Bavarian Polymer Institute University of Würzburg Pleicherwall 2 D‐97070 Wurzburg Germany
| | - Tina Vermonden
- Department of Pharmaceutics Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS) Faculty of Science Utrecht University Utrecht 3508 TB The Netherlands
| | - Jos Malda
- Department of Orthopeadics University Medical Center Heidelberglaan 100 Utrecht 3508 GA The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Sciences Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Utrecht University Yalelaan 1 Utrecht 3584 CL The Netherlands
| | - Miguel Castilho
- Department of Orthopeadics University Medical Center Heidelberglaan 100 Utrecht 3508 GA The Netherlands
- Department of Biomedical Engineering Eindhoven University of Technology De Zaale Eindhoven 5600 MB The Netherlands
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Davis ZG, Hussain AF, Fisher MB. Processing variables of direct-write, near-field electrospinning impact size and morphology of gelatin fibers. Biomed Mater 2021; 16. [PMID: 33857922 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/abf88b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Several biofabrication methods are being investigated to produce scaffolds that can replicate the structure of the extracellular matrix. Direct-write, near-field electrospinning of polymer solutions and electrowriting of polymer melts are methods which combine fine fiber formation with computer-guided control. Research with such systems has focused primarily on synthetic polymers. To better understand the behavior of biopolymers used for direct-writing, this project investigated changes in fiber morphology, size, and variability caused by varying gelatin and acetic acid concentration, as well as process parameters such as needle gauge and height, stage speed, and interfiber spacing. Increasing gelatin concentration at a constant acetic acid concentration improved fiber morphology from large, planar structures to small, linear fibers with a median of 2.3 µm. Further varying the acetic acid concentration at a constant gelatin concentration did not alter fiber morphology and diameter throughout the range tested. Varying needle gauge and height further improved the median fiber diameter to below 2 µm and variability of the first and third quartiles to within ±1 µm of the median. Additional adjustment of stage speed did not impact the fiber morphology or diameter. Repeatable interfiber spacings down to 250 µm were shown to be capable with the system. In summary, this study illustrates the optimization of processing parameters for direct-writing of gelatin to produce fibers on the scale of collagen fibers. This system is thus capable of replicating the fibrous structure of musculoskeletal tissues with biologically relevant materials which will provide a durable platform for the analysis of single cell-fiber interactions to help better understand the impact scaffold materials and dimensions have on cell behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary G Davis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, 4130 Engineering Building III, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America.,University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America
| | - Aasim F Hussain
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, 4130 Engineering Building III, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America.,University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America
| | - Matthew B Fisher
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, 4130 Engineering Building III, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America.,University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States of America.,Department of Orthopaedics, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 25799, United States of America.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States of America
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5
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Yoshida M, Turner PR, Ali MA, Cabral JD. Three-Dimensional Melt-Electrowritten Polycaprolactone/Chitosan Scaffolds Enhance Mesenchymal Stem Cell Behavior. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:1319-1329. [PMID: 35014483 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c01213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Melt electrowriting (MEW) is an emerging technique that precisely fabricates microfibrous scaffolds, ideal for tissue engineering, where biomimetic microarchitectural detail is required. Polycaprolactone (PCL), a synthetic polymer, was selected as the scaffold material due to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, mechanical strength, and melt processability. To increase PCL bioactivity, a natural polymer, chitosan, was added to construct MEW fibrous composite scaffolds. To date, this is the first study of its kind detailing the effects of stem cell behavior on PCL containing chitosan MEW scaffolds. The aim of this study was to melt electrowrite a range of PCL/chitosan tissue-engineered constructs (TECs) and assess their suitability to promote the growth of human bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs). In vitro physical and biological characterizations of melt-electrowritten TECs were performed. Physical characterization showed that reproducible, layered micron-range scaffolds could be successfully fabricated. As well, cell migration and proliferation were assessed via an assay to monitor cell infiltration throughout the three-dimensional (3D) melt-electrowritten scaffold structure. A statistically significant increase (∼140%) in hBMSC proliferation in 1 wt % chitosan PCL blends in comparison to PCL-only scaffolds was found when monitored over two weeks. Overall, our study demonstrates the fabrication of melt-electrowritten PCL/chitosan composite scaffolds with controlled microarchitecture and their potential use for regenerative, tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minami Yoshida
- Centre for Bioengineering & Nanomedicine, Department of Food Science, University of Otago, 362 Leith Street, North Dunedin, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Paul R Turner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand
| | - M Azam Ali
- Centre for Bioengineering & Nanomedicine, Department of Food Science, University of Otago, 362 Leith Street, North Dunedin, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Jaydee D Cabral
- Centre for Bioengineering & Nanomedicine, Department of Food Science, University of Otago, 362 Leith Street, North Dunedin, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand.,Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand
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6
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Evaluation of surface layer stability of surface-modified polyester biomaterials. Biointerphases 2020; 15:061010. [PMID: 33276701 DOI: 10.1116/6.0000687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Surface modification of biomaterials is a strategy used to improve cellular and in vivo outcomes. However, most studies do not evaluate the lifetime of the introduced surface layer, which is an important aspect affecting how a biomaterial will interact with a cellular environment both in the short and in the long term. This study evaluated the surface layer stability in vitro in buffer solution of materials produced from poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (50:50) and polycaprolactone modified by hydrolysis and/or grafting of hydrophilic polymers using grafting from approaches. The data presented in this study highlight the shortcomings of using model substrates (e.g., spun-coated films) rather than disks, particles, and scaffolds. It also illustrates how similar surface modification strategies in some cases result in very different lifetimes of the surface layer, thus emphasizing the need for these studies as analogies cannot always be drawn.
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Chansoria P, Schuchard K, Shirwaiker RA. Process hybridization schemes for multiscale engineered tissue biofabrication. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 13:e1673. [PMID: 33084240 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recapitulation of multiscale structure-function properties of cells, cell-secreted extracellular matrix, and 3D architecture of natural tissues is central to engineering biomimetic tissue substitutes. Toward achieving biomimicry, a variety of biofabrication processes have been developed, which can be broadly classified into five categories-fiber and fabric formation, additive manufacturing, surface modification, remote fields, and other notable processes-each with specific advantages and limitations. The majority of biofabrication literature has focused on using a single process at a time, which often limits the range of tissues that could be created with relevant features that span nano to macro scales. With multiscale biomimicry as the goal, development of hybrid biofabrication strategies that synergistically unite two or more processes to complement each other's strengths and limitations has been steadily increasing. This work discusses recent literature in this domain and attempts to equip the reader with the understanding of selecting appropriate processes that can harmonize toward creating engineered tissues with appropriate multiscale structure-function properties. Opportunities related to various hybridization schemes and a future outlook on scale-up biofabrication have also been discussed. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanotechnology in Tissue Repair and Replacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parth Chansoria
- Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Karl Schuchard
- Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rohan A Shirwaiker
- Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.,Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.,Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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He J, Zhang B, Li Z, Mao M, Li J, Han K, Li D. High-resolution electrohydrodynamic bioprinting: a new biofabrication strategy for biomimetic micro/nanoscale architectures and living tissue constructs. Biofabrication 2020; 12:042002. [PMID: 32615543 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/aba1fa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing is a newly emerging additive manufacturing strategy for the controlled fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) micro/nanoscale architectures. This unique superiority makes it particularly suitable for the biofabrication of artificial tissue analogs with biomimetic structural organizations similar to the scales of native extracellular matrix (ECM) or living cells, which shows great potentials to precisely regulate cellular behaviors and tissue regeneration. Here the state-of-the-art advancements of high-resolution EHD bioprinting were reviewed mainly including melt-based and solution-based processes for the fabrication of micro/nanoscale fibrous scaffolds and living tissues constructs. The related printing materials, innovations on structure design and printing processes, functionalization of the resultant architectures as well as their effects on the mechanical and biological properties of the EHD-printed structures were introduced and analyzed. The recent explorations on the EHD cell printing for high-resolution cell-laden microgel patterning and 3D construct fabrication were highlighted. The major challenges as well as possible solutions to translate EHD bioprinting into a mature and prevalent biofabrication strategy were finally discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiankang He
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, People's Republic of China. Rapid manufacturing research center of Shaanxi Province, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, People's Republic of China. Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed
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9
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Shirwaiker RA, Fisher MB, Anderson B, Schuchard KG, Warren PB, Maze B, Grondin P, Ligler FS, Pourdeyhimi B. High-Throughput Manufacture of 3D Fiber Scaffolds for Regenerative Medicine. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2020; 26:364-374. [PMID: 32552453 PMCID: PMC7398438 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2020.0098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered scaffolds used to regenerate mammalian tissues should recapitulate the underlying fibrous architecture of native tissue to achieve comparable function. Current fibrous scaffold fabrication processes, such as electrospinning and three-dimensional (3D) printing, possess application-specific advantages, but they are limited either by achievable fiber sizes and pore resolution, processing efficiency, or architectural control in three dimensions. As such, a gap exists in efficiently producing clinically relevant, anatomically sized scaffolds comprising fibers in the 1-100 μm range that are highly organized. This study introduces a new high-throughput, additive fibrous scaffold fabrication process, designated in this study as 3D melt blowing (3DMB). The 3DMB system described in this study is modified from larger nonwovens manufacturing machinery to accommodate the lower volume, high-cost polymers used for tissue engineering and implantable biomedical devices and has a fiber collection component that uses adaptable robotics to create scaffolds with predetermined geometries. The fundamental process principles, system design, and key parameters are described, and two examples of the capabilities to create scaffolds for biomedical engineering applications are demonstrated. Impact statement Three-dimensional melt blowing (3DMB) is a new, high-throughput, additive manufacturing process to produce scaffolds composed of highly organized fibers in the anatomically relevant 1-100 μm range. Unlike conventional melt-blowing systems, the 3DMB process is configured for efficient use with the relatively expensive polymers necessary for biomedical applications, decreasing the required amounts of material for processing while achieving high throughputs compared with 3D printing or electrospinning. The 3DMB is demonstrated to make scaffolds composed of multiple fiber materials and organized into complex shapes, including those typical of human body parts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan A. Shirwaiker
- Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Matthew B. Fisher
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Bruce Anderson
- The Nonwovens Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Karl G. Schuchard
- Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Paul B. Warren
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Benoit Maze
- The Nonwovens Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Pierre Grondin
- The Nonwovens Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Frances S. Ligler
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- The Nonwovens Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Behnam Pourdeyhimi
- Comparative Medicine Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
- The Nonwovens Institute, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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