Magnetic resonance imaging of isolated single liposome by magnetic resonance force microscopy

A Review of the Current State of Magnetic Force Microscopy to Unravel the Magnetic Properties of Nanomaterials Applied in Biological Systems and Future Directions for Quantum Technologies

Magnetism plays a pivotal role in many biological systems. However, the intensity of the magnetic forces exerted between magnetic bodies is usually low, which demands the development of ultra-sensitivity tools for proper sensing. In this framework, magnetic force microscopy (MFM) offers excellent lateral resolution and the possibility of conducting single-molecule studies like other single-probe microscopy (SPM) techniques. This comprehensive review attempts to describe the paramount importance of magnetic forces for biological applications by highlighting MFM's main advantages but also intrinsic limitations. While the working principles are described in depth, the article also focuses on novel micro- and nanofabrication procedures for MFM tips, which enhance the magnetic response signal of tested biomaterials compared to commercial nanoprobes. This work also depicts some relevant examples where MFM can quantitatively assess the magnetic performance of nanomaterials involved in biological systems, including magnetotactic bacteria, cryptochrome flavoproteins, and magnetic nanoparticles that can interact with animal tissues. Additionally, the most promising perspectives in this field are highlighted to make the reader aware of upcoming challenges when aiming toward quantum technologies.

Three-dimensional imaging of electron spin resonance-magnetic resonance force microscopy at room temperature

In this study, we demonstrated the three-dimensional (3D) imaging by magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) based on electron spin resonance (ESR) measurements at room temperature. For a microsample containing radicals, the 3D force distribution was obtained using a custom-made Si nanowire and a permanent magnetic particle. Calculation using precise values of the magnetic field distribution is required to define an accurate response function for the 3D deconvolution processing of the spin density distribution. A symmetric resonance magnetic field produces good periodic force maps using a spherical micromagnet, which simplifies the deconvolution processing with resonant slice systems. In addition, the 3D imaging method was processed in the wavenumber space by a Fourier transform that used a simple convolution with noise parameters in the response function. After the reconstruction of the distribution of electron spins (radicals), the shape of the sample agreed with that of the optical image; thus, the accuracy of the internal density structure was verified. We believe that the combination of a Si nanowire and a spherical magnetic particle used for magnetic resonance detection is a good candidate for Fourier transform 3D deconvolution in multiple MRFM applications.

Microscale 3D imaging by magnetic resonance force microscopy using full-volume Fourier- and Hadamard-encoding

Three-dimensional spatially resolved full-volume imaging by magnetic resonance force microscopy at room temperature is described. Spatial resolution in z-dimension is achieved by using the magnetic-field gradient of a ferromagnetic particle that is also used for the force detection of the magnetic resonance. The gradient of the radiofrequency pulses generated by two separate wire-bonded microcoils is used for spatial resolution in x- and y-dimension. To enhance the sensitivity of our measurement Hadamard- and Fourier-encoding schemes are applied due to their multiplex effect. Measurements were taken on a patterned (NH₄)₂SO₄ crystal sample. From the calculated magnetic field distributions, a 3D image was reconstructed with a voxel volume of about 5 μm³ (1.2 μm × 3.0 μm × 1.4 μm in x-, y- and z-dimension).

Force-detected nuclear magnetic resonance: recent advances and future challenges

We review recent efforts to detect small numbers of nuclear spins using magnetic resonance force microscopy. Magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) is a scanning probe technique that relies on the mechanical measurement of the weak magnetic force between a microscopic magnet and the magnetic moments in a sample. Spurred by the recent progress in fabricating ultrasensitive force detectors, MRFM has rapidly improved its capability over the last decade. Today it boasts a spin sensitivity that surpasses conventional, inductive nuclear magnetic resonance detectors by about eight orders of magnitude. In this review we touch on the origins of this technique and focus on its recent application to nanoscale nuclear spin ensembles, in particular on the imaging of nanoscale objects with a three-dimensional (3D) spatial resolution better than 10 nm. We consider the experimental advances driving this work and highlight the underlying physical principles and limitations of the method. Finally, we discuss the challenges that must be met in order to advance the technique towards single nuclear spin sensitivity-and perhaps-to 3D microscopy of molecules with atomic resolution.

Advances in mechanical detection of magnetic resonance

The invention and initial demonstration of magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) in the early 1990s launched a renaissance of mechanical approaches to detecting magnetic resonance. This article reviews progress made in MRFM in the last decade, including the demonstration of scanned probe detection of magnetic resonance (electron spin resonance, ferromagnetic resonance, and nuclear magnetic resonance) and the mechanical detection of electron spin resonance from a single spin. Force and force-gradient approaches to mechanical detection are reviewed and recent related work using attonewton sensitivity cantilevers to probe minute fluctuating electric fields near surfaces is discussed. Given recent progress, pushing MRFM to single proton sensitivity remains an exciting possibility. We will survey some practical and fundamental issues that must be resolved to meet this challenge.

Magnetic resonance force microscopy combined with surface topography

A new method of surface microscopy is proposed, which combines three-dimensional electron spin resonance imaging by magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM) and topographic imaging of the sample surface by scanning force microscopy (SFM). In order to demonstrate its potential for the identification of microscale objects, the individual and combined images are used to provide the locations, shapes and spin density distributions of target phantom objects. We report spatial resolution in MRFM of 2.8 x 2.8 x 2.0 microm(3). This could be improved to the theoretical limit of 0.08 x 0.08 x 0.04 microm(3) through reduction of the thermal noise by cooling to cryogenic temperatures approximately 0.5K. We believe that this type of microscopy will become a very useful tool for the investigation of anomalies induced in surfaces by materials buried below the surface.

Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging with 90-nm resolution

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a powerful imaging technique that typically operates on the scale of millimetres to micrometres. Conventional MRI is based on the manipulation of nuclear spins with radio-frequency fields, and the subsequent detection of spins with induction-based techniques. An alternative approach, magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM), uses force detection to overcome the sensitivity limitations of conventional MRI. Here, we show that the two-dimensional imaging of nuclear spins can be extended to a spatial resolution better than 100 nm using MRFM. The imaging of 19F nuclei in a patterned CaF(2) test object was enabled by a detection sensitivity of roughly 1,200 nuclear spins at a temperature of 600 mK. To achieve this sensitivity, we developed high-moment magnetic tips that produced field gradients up to 1.4 x 10(6) T m(-1), and implemented a measurement protocol based on force-gradient detection of naturally occurring spin fluctuations. The resulting detection volume was less than 650 zeptolitres. This is 60,000 times smaller than the previous smallest volume for nuclear magnetic resonance microscopy, and demonstrates the feasibility of pushing MRI into the nanoscale regime.

Three dimensional magnetic resonance imaging by magnetic resonance force microscopy with a sharp magnetic needle

An electropolished magnetic needle made of Nd(2)Fe(14)B permanent magnet was used for obtaining better spatial resolution than that achieved in our previous work. We observed the magnetic field gradient |G(Z)|=80.0G/microm and the field strength B=1250G at Z approximately 8.8 microm from the top of the needle. The use of this needle for three dimensional magnetic resonance force microscopy at room temperature allowed us to achieve the voxel resolution to be 0.6 microm x 0.6 microm x 0.7 microm in the reconstructed image of DPPH phantom. The acquisition time spent for the whole data collection over 64 x 64 x 16 points, including an iterative signal average by six times per point, was about 10 days.

Miniature self-contained intravascular magnetic resonance (IVMI) probe for clinical applications

A miniature (1.73 mm in diameter) NMR probe, which contains a magnet and a radiofrequency (RF) coil, is presented. This probe is integrated at the tip of a standard catheter and can be inserted into the human coronary arteries, creating local magnetic fields needed to obtain the NMR signal from the blood vessel walls, without the need for external magnet or RF coils. The basic theory governing the probe performance in terms of signal-to-noise-ratio and contrast parameters is presented, along with measured results from test samples. The NMR signal can be analyzed to obtain tissue contrast parameters such as T1, T2 and the diffusion coefficient, which may be used to detect lipid-rich vulnerable plaques in the coronary arteries.