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Han B, Liang W, Hai Y, Sun D, Ding H, Yang Y, Yin P. Neurophysiological, histological, and behavioral characterization of animal models of distraction spinal cord injury: a systematic review. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:563-570. [PMID: 37721285 PMCID: PMC10581570 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.380871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Distraction spinal cord injury is caused by some degree of distraction or longitudinal tension on the spinal cord and commonly occurs in patients who undergo corrective operation for severe spinal deformity. With the increased degree and duration of distraction, spinal cord injuries become more serious in terms of their neurophysiology, histology, and behavior. Very few studies have been published on the specific characteristics of distraction spinal cord injury. In this study, we systematically review 22 related studies involving animal models of distraction spinal cord injury, focusing particularly on the neurophysiological, histological, and behavioral characteristics of this disease. In addition, we summarize the mechanisms underlying primary and secondary injuries caused by distraction spinal cord injury and clarify the effects of different degrees and durations of distraction on the primary injuries associated with spinal cord injury. We provide new concepts for the establishment of a model of distraction spinal cord injury and related basic research, and provide reference guidelines for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Han
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Weishi Liang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Hai
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Duan Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hongtao Ding
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yihan Yang
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Li H, Gao S, Li R, Cui H, Huang W, Huang Y, Hu Y. Identifying Intraoperative Spinal Cord Injury Location from Somatosensory Evoked Potentials' Time-Frequency Components. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:707. [PMID: 37370638 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10060707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Excessive distraction in corrective spine surgery can lead to iatrogenic distraction spinal cord injury. Diagnosis of the location of the spinal cord injury helps in early removal of the injury source. The time-frequency components of the somatosensory evoked potential have been reported to provide information on the location of spinal cord injury, but most studies have focused on contusion injuries of the cervical spine. In this study, we established 19 rat models of distraction spinal cord injury at different levels and collected the somatosensory evoked potentials of the hindlimb and extracted their time-frequency components. Subsequently, we used k-medoid clustering and naive Bayes to classify spinal cord injury at the C5 and C6 level, as well as spinal cord injury at the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar spine, respectively. The results showed that there was a significant delay in the latency of the time-frequency components distributed between 15 and 30 ms and 50 and 150 Hz in all spinal cord injury groups. The overall classification accuracy was 88.28% and 84.87%. The results demonstrate that the k-medoid clustering and naive Bayes methods are capable of extracting the time-frequency component information depending on the spinal cord injury location and suggest that the somatosensory evoked potential has the potential to diagnose the location of a spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanlei Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
| | - Songkun Gao
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
| | - Rong Li
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
| | - Hongyan Cui
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Rehabilitation, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang 524255, China
| | - Yongcan Huang
- Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory of Orthopaedic Regenerative Technologies, Orthopaedic Research Center, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen 518036, China
| | - Yong Hu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin 300192, China
- Department of Rehabilitation, The 2nd Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang 524255, China
- Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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Liu F, Huang Y, Wang H. Rodent Models of Spinal Cord Injury: From Pathology to Application. Neurochem Res 2023; 48:340-361. [PMID: 36303082 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-022-03794-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often has devastating consequences for the patient's physical, mental and occupational health. At present, there is no effective treatment for SCI, and appropriate animal models are very important for studying the pathological manifestations, injury mechanisms, and corresponding treatment. However, the pathological changes in each injury model are different, which creates difficulties in selecting appropriate models for different research purposes. In this article, we analyze various SCI models and introduce their pathological features, including inflammation, glial scar formation, axon regeneration, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and oxidative stress, and evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each model, which is convenient for selecting suitable models for different injury mechanisms to study therapeutic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuze Liu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Huang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China
| | - Hai Wang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Shuaifuyuan, Beijing, 100730, People's Republic of China.
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Liang W, Han B, Hai Y, Liu Y, Liu X, Yang J, Sun D, Yin P. The Role of Microglia/Macrophages Activation and TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK Pathway in Distraction Spinal Cord Injury-Induced Inflammation. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:926453. [PMID: 35755773 PMCID: PMC9218068 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.926453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Distraction spinal cord injuries (DSCIs) often occur as the neurological complication of distraction forces following the implantation of internal fixation devices during scoliosis correction surgery. However, the underlying mechanism behind these injuries remains unclear. The present study aimed to explore the activation of microglia and macrophages, as well as changes in TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK pathway activity after DSCIs in Bama miniature pigs. Prior to surgical intervention, the pigs were randomly divided into three groups: the sham group, the complete distraction spinal cord injury (CDSCI) group, and the incomplete distraction spinal cord injury (IDSCI) group. After surgery, the Tarlov scale and individual limb motor scale (ILMS) were used to evaluate changes in the pigs’ behavior. All pigs were euthanized 7 days after surgery, and histopathological examinations of the spinal cord tissues were performed. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect Caspase-3 expression in the anterior horn of spinal gray matter tissues. Immunofluorescence staining was utilized to assess the M1/M2 phenotype changes in microglia/macrophages and NF-κB P65 expression in central DSCI lesions, while western blotting was performed to determine the expression of TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK pathway-related proteins. The results of the present study showed that the Tarlov and ILMS scores decreased significantly in the two DSCI groups compared with the sham group. Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and Nissl staining revealed that the tissue structure and nerve fiber tracts in the distracted spinal cord tissues were destroyed. Both DSCI groups showed the number of survived neurons decreased and the Caspase-3 expression increased. The results of the immunofluorescence staining indicated that the CD16 and CD206 expression in the microglia/macrophages increased. Between the two DSCI groups, the CDSCI group showed increased CD16 and decreased CD206 expression levels. The intensity of the fluorescence of NF-κB P65 was found to be significantly enhanced in pigs with DSCIs. Moreover, western blot results revealed that the expression of TLR4, p-IκBα, NF-κB P65, p-JNK, p-ERK, and p-P38 proteins increased in spinal cord tissues following DSCI. The present study was based on a porcine DSCI model that closely mimicked clinical DSCIs while clarifying DSCI-associated neuroinflammation mechanisms, in turn providing evidence for identifying potential anti-inflammatory targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weishi Liang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Bo Han
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Hai
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuzeng Liu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xing Liu
- Department of Pathology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jincai Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Duan Sun
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Yin
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Han B, Liang W, Hai Y, Liu Y, Chen Y, Ding H, Yang J, Yin P. Elucidating the Potential Mechanisms Underlying Distraction Spinal Cord Injury-Associated Neuroinflammation and Apoptosis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:839313. [PMID: 35265624 PMCID: PMC8898939 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.839313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of distraction spinal cord injury (DSCI), which results from spinal cord ischemia due to vascular compromise and spinal cord tract disturbances, remains high. Furthermore, because no ideal animal model that mimics DSCI in clinical settings is available thus far, the related molecular mechanisms underlying DSCI remain unclear. Thus, this study aimed to establish a porcine model of DSCI and investigate the neuroinflammation and apoptosis mechanisms in these pigs. Before surgery, all pigs were randomly divided into three groups: sham group, osteotomy surgery only; the incomplete distraction spinal cord injury (IDSCI) and complete distraction spinal cord injury (CDSCI) group, osteotomy plus DSCI surgery with a motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude decreased by approximately 75% and 100%, respectively. After surgery, modified Tarlov scoring and MRC muscle strength scoring were used to evaluate neurologic function in each group. We observed the distracted spinal cord using MRI, and then all pigs were sacrificed. Inflammatory cytokine levels in the spinal cord and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were also analyzed. We used immunofluorescence staining to assess the neuronal and microglial structure and function and astrocyte hyperplasia in the central DSCI lesions (T15). Western blotting was used to determine the expression of apoptosis-related proteins. Results showed that the modified Tarlov scoring and muscle strength decreased significantly in the two DSCI groups. T2-MRI showed a relative enhancement at the center of the DSCI lesions. H&E and Lxol fast blue staining revealed that spinal cord distraction destroyed the normal structure of spinal cord tissues and nerve fiber tracts, exacerbating inflammatory cell infiltration, hyperemia, and edema. The IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels increased in the spinal cord and CSF following DSCI. Immunofluorescence staining results indicated the GFAP, Iba-1 expression increased following DSCI, whereas the NeuN expression reduced. Moreover, DSCI promoted the protein expression of P53, Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), and Caspase-3 in the spinal cord tissues, whereas it reduced the Bcl-2 expression. This study successfully established a porcine DSCI model that closely mimics DSCI in clinical settings, and clarified the mechanisms underlying DSCI-associated neuroinflammation and apoptosis; thus, our findings highlight potential DSCI-treatment strategies for further establishing suitable drug therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Han
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Weishi Liang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Hai
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuzeng Liu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxiang Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hongtao Ding
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jincai Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Yin
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Chaoyang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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Han C, Hai Y, Zhou C, Yin P, Guo R, Wang H, Wang W, Cha T, Li G. Investigation of in vivo three-dimensional changes of the spinal canal after corrective surgeries of the idiopathic scoliosis. JOR Spine 2021; 4:e1151. [PMID: 34611586 PMCID: PMC8479520 DOI: 10.1002/jsp2.1151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the three-dimensional (3D) changes of the spinal canal length (SCL) after corrective surgeries and their association with the radiographic and clinical outcomes of idiopathic scoliosis patients. The length of the spinal cord has been demonstrated to be strongly correlated with the SCL. Understanding the changes in SCL could help determine the morphologic changes in the spinal cord to prevent spinal cord injury. METHODS Twenty-seven scoliotic patients' 3D spinal canal were investigated using computed tomography images. The SCL between the upper and lower end vertebrae (U/L-EV) was measured at five locations. The radiographic parameters of each patient and the patient-reported outcomes (PROs) scores were also collected. The correlations of the changes of the SCLs with the other factors were analyzed. RESULTS The SCL between the U/L-EV changed non-uniformly at different locations. The post-operative SCLs were significantly elongated by 7.5 ± 3.5 mm (6.0 ± 2.5%, P < .001) at the concave side and compressed by -2.6 ± 2.6 mm (-1.9 ± 1.9%, P < .001) at the convex side. The elongations of the SCL at the concave and posterior locations were correlated with the radiographic parameters including the pre-operative main Cobb angles (r = .511, P = .006; r = .613, P = .001) and apical vertebral translation (AVT) (r = .481, P = .011; r = .684, P = .000). No PRO scores were found to correlate with the SCL changes. CONCLUSION The corrective surgeries elongated the spinal canal mainly at the concave side and compressed at the convex side. The main thoracic Cobb angle, the changes of AVT, and Cobb angles were moderately associated with the changes of the SCLs, but no PRO score was found to associate with the changes of the SCLs. The data could be instrumental for the improvement of corrective surgeries that are aimed to maximize the correction of scoliosis and minimize the negative effect on the spinal cord to prevent neurological complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaofan Han
- Department of OrthopaedicBeijing Chao‐Yang Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Bioengineering Research CenterNewton‐Wellesley Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolNewtonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Yong Hai
- Department of OrthopaedicBeijing Chao‐Yang Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Chaochao Zhou
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Bioengineering Research CenterNewton‐Wellesley Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolNewtonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Peng Yin
- Department of OrthopaedicBeijing Chao‐Yang Hospital, Capital Medical UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Runsheng Guo
- First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang UniversityNanchangChina
| | | | | | - Thomas Cha
- Orthopaedic Spine CenterMassachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Guoan Li
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Bioengineering Research CenterNewton‐Wellesley Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolNewtonMassachusettsUSA
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In vivo deformation of the spine canal before and after surgical corrections of severe and rigid kyphoscoliosis. J Orthop Translat 2020; 23:1-7. [PMID: 32514391 PMCID: PMC7264988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jot.2020.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ponte osteotomy and posterior vertebral column resection (PVCR) are two popular surgical techniques in treatment of severe and rigid kyphoscoliosis. However, quantitative effects of the two surgeries on spinal cord deformation are unclear. This information is critical for improvement of the treatment methods that can maximally correct the spinal deformity and prevent neurological complications. Methods Ten patients with severe kyphoscoliosis were investigated. X-ray and CT images of full spine of all patients were acquired before and 6–24 months after surgical treatment using either Ponte osteotomy or PVCR. A 3D model of the spine was constructed for each patient using the CT images that included the spinal canal between T2 and L2 vertebrae. The spinal canal length (SCL) was determined at 5 locations on the cross section of the canal: anterior, posterior, left, right (concave or convex side) and centre positions. The perpendicular distances between the T2 and L2 vertebrae, COBB angles and patient reported outcome measures before and after operations were determined. Results For patients treated with Ponte osteotomy, the SCLs were elongated by 12.7 ± 9.5 mm (5.4 ± 3.9%) at the concave side and 3.2 ± 6.8 mm (1.3 ± 2.8%) at the convex side. The COBB angle was corrected by 55.8% and the T2-L2 distance was increased by 66.1 ± 12.0 mm (68.4 ± 15.9%). For patients treated using PVCR, the SCLs were shortened by −5.5 ± 5.3 mm (−2.3 ± 2.2%) at the concave side and −14.0 ± 6.6 mm (−5.2 ± 2.6%) at the convex side. The COBB angle was corrected by 60.0% and the T2-L2 distance was increased by 41.5 ± 12.4 mm (32.1 ± 23.0%). The patient reported outcome scores were improved using both surgeries (p < 0.05). Conclusion Ponte and PVCR surgeries caused significant changes of the SCL in scoliosis patients in different ways. The Ponte osteotomy mainly caused elongation of the SCL at concave side and the PVCR caused compression of the SCL at the convex side. Both surgeries partially improved the spinal deformity. The data provide insights for development of new surgical techniques that integrates the advantages of both Ponte and PVCR osteotomies to maximally correct the spine deformity and prevent neurological complications. The translational potential of this article The methodology and the data presented in this paper could be instrumental for development of computer assisted surgical techniques that can maximally correct the spinal deformity and minimize the effect on the spinal cord in scoliosis patients.
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Jones CF, Clarke EC. Engineering approaches to understanding mechanisms of spinal column injury leading to spinal cord injury. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2019; 64:69-81. [PMID: 29625748 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2018.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mechanical interactions occurring between the spinal column and spinal cord during an injury event are complex and variable, and likely have implications for the clinical presentation and prognosis of the individual. METHODS The engineering approaches that have been developed to better understand spinal column and cord interactions during an injury event are discussed. These include injury models utilising human and animal cadaveric specimens, in vivo anaesthetised animals, finite element models, inanimate physical systems and combinations thereof. FINDINGS The paper describes the development of these modelling approaches, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the various models, and the major outcomes that have had implications for spinal cord injury research and clinical practice. INTERPRETATION The contribution of these four engineering approaches to understanding the interaction between the biomechanics and biology of spinal cord injury is substantial; they have improved our understanding of the factors contributing to the spinal column disruption, the degree of spinal cord deformation or motion, and the resultant neurological deficit and imaging features. Models of the injury event are challenging to produce, but technological advances are likely to improve these models and, consequently, our understanding of the mechanical context in which the biological injury occurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire F Jones
- Spinal Research Group, Centre for Orthopaedics and Trauma Research, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Australia; School of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Elizabeth C Clarke
- Institute for Bone and Joint Research, Kolling Institute, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Australia.
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Mattucci S, Speidel J, Liu J, Kwon BK, Tetzlaff W, Oxland TR. Basic biomechanics of spinal cord injury - How injuries happen in people and how animal models have informed our understanding. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2019; 64:58-68. [PMID: 29685426 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2018.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The wide variability, or heterogeneity, in human spinal cord injury is due partially to biomechanical factors. This review summarizes our current knowledge surrounding the patterns of human spinal column injury and the biomechanical factors affecting injury. The biomechanics of human spinal injury is studied most frequently with human cadaveric models and the features of the two most common injury patterns, burst fracture and fracture dislocation, are outlined. The biology of spinal cord injury is typically studied with animal models and the effects of the most relevant biomechanical factors - injury mechanism, injury velocity, and residual compression, are described. Tissue damage patterns and behavioural outcomes following dislocation or distraction injury mechanisms differ from the more commonly used contusion mechanism. The velocity of injury affects spinal cord damage, principally in the white matter. Ongoing, or residual compression after the initial impact does affect spinal cord damage, but few models exist that replicate the clinical scenario. Future research should focus on the effects of these biomechanical factors in different preclinical animal models as recent data suggests that treatment outcomes may vary between models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Mattucci
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jason Speidel
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Jie Liu
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Brian K Kwon
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada; Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, 910 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada; Departments of Zoology and Surgery, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Thomas R Oxland
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, 910 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada.
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Alizadeh A, Dyck SM, Karimi-Abdolrezaee S. Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury: An Overview of Pathophysiology, Models and Acute Injury Mechanisms. Front Neurol 2019; 10:282. [PMID: 30967837 PMCID: PMC6439316 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 583] [Impact Index Per Article: 116.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life changing neurological condition with substantial socioeconomic implications for patients and their care-givers. Recent advances in medical management of SCI has significantly improved diagnosis, stabilization, survival rate and well-being of SCI patients. However, there has been small progress on treatment options for improving the neurological outcomes of SCI patients. This incremental success mainly reflects the complexity of SCI pathophysiology and the diverse biochemical and physiological changes that occur in the injured spinal cord. Therefore, in the past few decades, considerable efforts have been made by SCI researchers to elucidate the pathophysiology of SCI and unravel the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of tissue degeneration and repair in the injured spinal cord. To this end, a number of preclinical animal and injury models have been developed to more closely recapitulate the primary and secondary injury processes of SCI. In this review, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in our understanding of the pathophysiology of SCI. We will also discuss the neurological outcomes of human SCI and the available experimental model systems that have been employed to identify SCI mechanisms and develop therapeutic strategies for this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arsalan Alizadeh
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Scott Matthew Dyck
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Soheila Karimi-Abdolrezaee
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, Spinal Cord Research Center, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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Mattucci S, Liu J, Fijal P, Tetzlaff W, Oxland TR. Repeatability of a Dislocation Spinal Cord Injury Model in a Rat-A High-Speed Biomechanical Analysis. J Biomech Eng 2018; 139:2644121. [PMID: 28696485 DOI: 10.1115/1.4037224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Dislocation is the most common, and severe, spinal cord injury (SCI) mechanism in humans, yet there are few preclinical models. While dislocation in the rat model has been shown to produce unique outcomes, like other closed column models it exhibits higher outcome variability. Refinement of the dislocation model will enhance the testing of neuroprotective strategies, further biomechanical understanding, and guide therapeutic decisions. The overall objective of this study is to improve biomechanical repeatability of a dislocation SCI model in the rat, through the following specific aims: (i) design new injury clamps that pivot and self-align to the vertebrae; (ii) measure intervertebral kinematics during injury using the existing and redesigned clamps; and (iii) compare relative motion at the vertebrae-clamp interface to determine which clamps provide the most rigid connection. Novel clamps that pivot and self-align were developed based on the quantitative rat vertebral anatomy. A dislocation injury was produced in 34 rats at C4/C5 using either the existing or redesigned clamps, and a high-speed X-ray device recorded the kinematics. Relative motion between the caudal clamp and C5 was significantly greater in the existing clamps compared to the redesigned clamps in dorsoventral translation and sagittal rotation. This study demonstrates that relative motions can be of magnitudes that likely affect injury outcomes. We recommend such biomechanical analyses be applied to other SCI models when repeatability is an issue. For this dislocation model, the results show the importance of using clamps that pivot and self-align to the vertebrae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Mattucci
- Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Jie Liu
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Paul Fijal
- Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
| | - Thomas R Oxland
- Professor and Director Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Group, Departments of Orthopaedics and Mechanical Engineering, International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada e-mail:
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12
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Shimizu EN, Seifert JL, Johnson KJ, Romero-Ortega MI. Prophylactic Riluzole Attenuates Oxidative Stress Damage in Spinal Cord Distraction. J Neurotrauma 2018; 35:1319-1328. [PMID: 29295647 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2017.5494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) without radiographical abnormalities (SCIWORA) presents a significant challenge because of the loss of function despite an apparent normal anatomy. The cause of dysfunction is not understood, and specific treatment options are lacking. Some scoliosis corrective surgeries result in SCIWORA, where stretching of the spinal cord can lead to vascular compromise and hypoxia. The iatrogenic nature of this injury allows for the implantation of neuroprotective strategies that are designed to prevent damage. We utilized a model of atraumatic SCI to evaluate the efficacy of the sodium-channel blocker, riluzole, as a prophylactic neuroprotectant. As expected, the stretch injury caused a significant reduction in intraparenchymal oxygen in distraction (-53.09 ± 22.23%) and riluzole pre-treated distraction animals (-43.04 ± 22.86%). However, in contrast to the oxidative stress and metabolic impairments observed in vehicle-treated distraction animals, in which protein carbonylation increased significantly (5.88 ± 1.3 nmol/mL), riluzole kept these levels within the normal range (1.8 ± 1.0 nmol/mL). This neurprotection also prevented ventral motor neuron hypoplasia and pyknosis, characteristic features of this atraumatic SCI model, and maintained normal gait function (e.g., stride length and stance time). This study provides evidence for the use of prophylactic neuroprotective strategies in which thoracic or spine surgeries present the risk of causing atraumatic SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen N Shimizu
- 1 Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas , Richardson, Texas
| | - Jennifer L Seifert
- 1 Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas , Richardson, Texas
| | - Kevin J Johnson
- 1 Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas , Richardson, Texas
| | - Mario I Romero-Ortega
- 1 Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas , Richardson, Texas.,2 Surgery Department, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , Dallas, Texas
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13
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Ramo NL, Shetye SS, Streijger F, Lee JHT, Troyer KL, Kwon BK, Cripton P, Puttlitz CM. Comparison of in vivo and ex vivo viscoelastic behavior of the spinal cord. Acta Biomater 2018; 68:78-89. [PMID: 29288084 PMCID: PMC5803400 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite efforts to simulate the in vivo environment, post-mortem degradation and lack of blood perfusion complicate the use of ex vivo derived material models in computational studies of spinal cord injury. In order to quantify the mechanical changes that manifest ex vivo, the viscoelastic behavior of in vivo and ex vivo porcine spinal cord samples were compared. Stress-relaxation data from each condition were fit to a non-linear viscoelastic model using a novel characterization technique called the direct fit method. To validate the presented material models, the parameters obtained for each condition were used to predict the respective dynamic cyclic response. Both ex vivo and in vivo samples displayed non-linear viscoelastic behavior with a significant increase in relaxation with applied strain. However, at all three strain magnitudes compared, ex vivo samples experienced a higher stress and greater relaxation than in vivo samples. Significant differences between model parameters also showed distinct relaxation behaviors, especially in non-linear relaxation modulus components associated with the short-term response (0.1-1 s). The results of this study underscore the necessity of utilizing material models developed from in vivo experimental data for studies of spinal cord injury, where the time-dependent properties are critical. The ability of each material model to accurately predict the dynamic cyclic response validates the presented methodology and supports the use of the in vivo model in future high-resolution finite element modeling efforts. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE Neural tissues (such as the brain and spinal cord) display time-dependent, or viscoelastic, mechanical behavior making it difficult to model how they respond to various loading conditions, including injury. Methods that aim to characterize the behavior of the spinal cord almost exclusively use ex vivo cadaveric or animal samples, despite evidence that time after death affects the behavior compared to that in a living animal (in vivo response). Therefore, this study directly compared the mechanical response of ex vivo and in vivo samples to quantify these differences for the first time. This will allow researchers to draw more accurate conclusions about spinal cord injuries based on ex vivo data (which are easier to obtain) and emphasizes the importance of future in vivo experimental animal work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L Ramo
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Snehal S Shetye
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Femke Streijger
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jae H T Lee
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kevin L Troyer
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Brian K Kwon
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Peter Cripton
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christian M Puttlitz
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA; Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.
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14
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Bell JE, Seifert JL, Shimizu EN, Sucato DJ, Romero-Ortega MI. Atraumatic Spine Distraction Induces Metabolic Distress in Spinal Motor Neurons. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:2034-2044. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer E.S. Bell
- Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas
| | | | - Eileen N. Shimizu
- Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas
| | - Daniel J. Sucato
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, Dallas, Texas
| | - Mario I. Romero-Ortega
- Bioengineering Department, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas
- Surgery Department, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas
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15
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Chen HSM, Holmes N, Liu J, Tetzlaff W, Kozlowski P. Validating myelin water imaging with transmission electron microscopy in a rat spinal cord injury model. Neuroimage 2017; 153:122-130. [PMID: 28377211 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.03.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Myelin content is an important marker for neuropathology and MRI generated myelin water fraction (MWF) has been shown to correlate well with myelin content. However, because MWF is based on the amount of signal from myelin water, that is, the water trapped between the myelin lipid bilayers, the reading may depend heavily on myelin morphology. This is of special concern when there is a mix of intact myelin and myelin debris, as in the case of injury. To investigate what MWF measures in the presence of debris, we compared MWF to transmission electron microscopy (TEM) derived myelin fraction that measures the amount of compact appearing myelin. A rat spinal cord injury model was used with time points at normal (normal myelin), 3 weeks post-injury (myelin debris), and 8 weeks post-injury (myelin debris, partially cleared). The myelin period between normal and 3 or 8 weeks post-injury cords did not differ significantly, suggesting that as long as the bilayer structure is intact, myelin debris has the same water content as intact myelin. The MWF also correlated strongly with the TEM-derived myelin fraction, suggesting that MWF measures the amount of compact appearing myelin in both intact myelin and myelin debris. From the TEM images, it appears that as myelin degenerates, it tends to form large watery spaces within the myelin sheaths that are not classified as myelin water. The results presented in this study improve our understanding and allows for better interpretation of MWF in the presence of myelin debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Szu-Meng Chen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada; University of British Columbia MRI Research Centre, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Nathan Holmes
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jie Liu
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | - Piotr Kozlowski
- University of British Columbia MRI Research Centre, Vancouver, Canada; International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), Vancouver, Canada; Department of Radiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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16
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Wu J, Xue J, Huang R, Zheng C, Cui Y, Rao S. A rabbit model of lumbar distraction spinal cord injury. Spine J 2016; 16:643-58. [PMID: 26704859 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2015.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT Excessive spinal distraction is a major cause of distraction spinal cord injury (SCI) during spinal deformity correction surgery. However, the lack of animal models of gradable and replicable distraction SCI has hampered research about how it occurs and how it can be prevented. The rabbit is a suitable choice for a model because it is more similar to humans than the rat, the most often used for studies of distraction SCI. The rabbit is readily acquired and reasonably affordable to maintain. PURPOSE The study aims to develop a gradable and replicable animal model of human lumbar distraction SCI. STUDY DESIGN This is an animal laboratory study. METHODS We built a spine distractor designed to vary the percentage of spine distraction by changing the movement between the bony landmarks of the spine. Anesthetized rabbits underwent surgery to expose the vertebral segments from T12 through L4. The distractor was mounted onto the T12 and L4 vertebral segments, and distraction was effected by turning the distractor's central screw to 0% (control), 10%, 20%, or 30% of the length from the L1 to the L4 vertebral segments, with eight rabbits in each group. Cortical somatosensory evoked potentials were recorded, and neurologic function was evaluated before the distractor was mounted and after the distractor was dismounted. The rabbits were killed, and spinal cord samples were taken for biochemical, histopathologic, and stereologic studies. RESULTS With increasing percentage distraction, the extent of distraction SCI increased as measured by recordings of cortical somatosensory evoked potentials, neurologic function, and biochemical, histopathologic, and stereologic studies. CONCLUSIONS Our model can be widely applied to studies of the causes of and treatment for distraction SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Wu
- Orthopedic Department, Air Force General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No 30 Fucheng Rd, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Jing Xue
- Orthopedic Department, Air Force General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No 30 Fucheng Rd, Beijing 100142, China.
| | - Rongrong Huang
- Orthopedic Department, Air Force General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No 30 Fucheng Rd, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Chao Zheng
- Orthopedic Department, Air Force General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No 30 Fucheng Rd, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Yuming Cui
- Orthopedic Department, Air Force General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No 30 Fucheng Rd, Beijing 100142, China
| | - Shucheng Rao
- Orthopedic Department, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, No. 37 Guo Xue Xiang, Chengdu, Sichuan 610041, China
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del Mar N, von Buttlar X, Yu AS, Guley NH, Reiner A, Honig MG. A novel closed-body model of spinal cord injury caused by high-pressure air blasts produces extensive axonal injury and motor impairments. Exp Neurol 2015; 271:53-71. [PMID: 25957630 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Diffuse axonal injury is thought to be the basis of the functional impairments stemming from mild traumatic brain injury. To examine how axons are damaged by traumatic events, such as motor vehicle accidents, falls, sports activities, or explosive blasts, we have taken advantage of the spinal cord with its extensive white matter tracts. We developed a closed-body model of spinal cord injury in mice whereby high-pressure air blasts targeted to lower thoracic vertebral levels produce tensile, compressive, and shear forces within the parenchyma of the spinal cord and thereby cause extensive axonal injury. Markers of cytoskeletal integrity showed that spinal cord axons exhibited three distinct pathologies: microtubule breakage, neurofilament compaction, and calpain-mediated spectrin breakdown. The dorsally situated axons of the corticospinal tract primarily exhibited microtubule breakage, whereas all three pathologies were common in the lateral and ventral white matter. Individual axons typically demonstrated only one of the three pathologies during the first 24h after blast injury, suggesting that the different perturbations are initiated independently of one another. For the first few days after blast, neurofilament compaction was frequently accompanied by autophagy, and subsequent to that, by the fragmentation of degenerating axons. TuJ1 immunolabeling and mice with YFP-reporter labeling each revealed more extensive microtubule breakage than did βAPP immunolabeling, raising doubts about the sensitivity of this standard approach for assessing axonal injury. Although motor deficits were mild and largely transient, some aspects of motor function gradually worsened over several weeks, suggesting that a low level of axonal degeneration continued past the initial wave. Our model can help provide further insight into how to intervene in the processes by which initial axonal damage culminates in axonal degeneration, to improve outcomes after traumatic injury. Importantly, our findings of extensive axonal injury also caution that repeated trauma is likely to have cumulative adverse consequences for both brain and spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobel del Mar
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Xinyu von Buttlar
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Angela S Yu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Natalie H Guley
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Anton Reiner
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Marcia G Honig
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.
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18
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Zhang N, Fang M, Chen H, Gou F, Ding M. Evaluation of spinal cord injury animal models. Neural Regen Res 2015; 9:2008-12. [PMID: 25598784 PMCID: PMC4283285 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.143436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Because there is no curative treatment for spinal cord injury, establishing an ideal animal model is important to identify injury mechanisms and develop therapies for individuals suffering from spinal cord injuries. In this article, we systematically review and analyze various kinds of animal models of spinal cord injury and assess their advantages and disadvantages for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Zhang
- Department of Medical Sciences, Jinhua Polytechnic, Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Marong Fang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Haohao Chen
- Department of Medical Sciences, Jinhua Polytechnic, Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Fangming Gou
- Department of Medical Sciences, Jinhua Polytechnic, Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Mingxing Ding
- Department of Medical Sciences, Jinhua Polytechnic, Jinhua, Zhejiang Province, China ; Institute of Neuroscience, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China
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19
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Spinal cord injury models: a review. Spinal Cord 2014; 52:588-95. [PMID: 24912546 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2014.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal spinal cord injury (SCI) models have proved invaluable in better understanding the mechanisms involved in traumatic SCI and evaluating the effectiveness of experimental therapeutic interventions. Over the past 25 years, substantial gains have been made in developing consistent, reproducible and reliable animal SCI models. STUDY DESIGN Review. OBJECTIVE The objective of this review was to consolidate current knowledge on SCI models and introduce newer paradigms that are currently being developed. RESULTS SCI models are categorized based on the mechanism of injury into contusion, compression, distraction, dislocation, transection or chemical models. Contusion devices inflict a transient, acute injury to the spinal cord using a weight-drop technique, electromagnetic impactor or air pressure. Compression devices compress the cord at specific force and duration to cause SCI. Distraction SCI devices inflict graded injury by controlled stretching of the cord. Mechanical displacement of the vertebrae is utilized to produce dislocation-type SCI. Surgical transection of the cord, partial or complete, is particularly useful in regenerative medicine. Finally, chemically induced SCI replicates select components of the secondary injury cascade. Although rodents remain the most commonly used species and are best suited for preliminary SCI studies, large animal and nonhuman primate experiments better approximate human SCI. CONCLUSION All SCI models aim to replicate SCI in humans as closely as possible. Given the recent improvements in commonly used models and development of newer paradigms, much progress is anticipated in the coming years.
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20
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Ouellet J, Odent T. Animal models for scoliosis research: state of the art, current concepts and future perspective applications. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2013; 22 Suppl 2:S81-95. [PMID: 23099524 PMCID: PMC3616476 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-012-2396-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to provide the readers with a reliable source of animal models currently being utilized to perform state-of-the-art scoliotic research. MATERIALS AND METHODS A comprehensive search was undertaken to review all publications on animal models for the study of scoliosis within the database from 1946 to January 2011. RESULTS The animal models have been grouped under specific headings reflecting the underlying pathophysiology behind the development of the spinal deformities produced in the animals: genetics, neuroendocrine, neuromuscular, external constraints, internal constraints with or without tissue injury, vertebral growth modulation and iatrogenic congenital malformations, in an attempt to organize and classify these multiple scoliotic animal models. As it stands, there are no animal models that mimic the human spinal anatomy with all its constraints and weaknesses, which puts it at risk of developing scoliosis. What we do have are a multitude of models, which produce spinal deformities that come close to the idiopathic scoliosis deformity. CONCLUSION All these different animal models compel us to believe that the clinical phenotype of what we call idiopathic scoliosis may well be caused by a variety of different underlying pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Ouellet
- />McGill Scoliosis and Spinal Research Chair, Deputy Chief Shriners Hospital, Montreal, Canada
- />Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, McGill University Health Hospital, Centre, Montreal Children Hospital, 2300 Tupper Street, Montreal, QC H3H 1P3 Canada
| | - Thierry Odent
- />Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hopital des Enfants Malade, Necker, Paris Descartes, France
- />Université Paris Descartes - Sorbonne Paris Cité - Service d’orthopédie pédiatrique - Hôpital Universitaire Necker - Enfants-Malades, Paris, France
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