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Qu C, Xu QQ, Yang W, Zhong M, Yuan Q, Xian YF, Lin ZX. Gut dysbiosis aggravates cognitive deficits, amyloid pathology and lipid metabolism dysregulation in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1526-1547. [PMID: 38223452 PMCID: PMC10785152 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Gut dysbiosis, a well-known risk factor to triggers the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), is strongly associated with metabolic disturbance. Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), produced in the dietary choline metabolism, has been found to accelerate neurodegeneration in AD pathology. In this study, the cognitive function and gut microbiota of TgCRND8 (Tg) mice of different ages were evaluated by Morris water maze task (MWMT) and 16S rRNA sequencing, respectively. Young pseudo germ-free (PGF) Tg mice that received faecal microbiota transplants from aged Tg mice and wild-type (WT) mice were selected to determine the role of the gut microbiota in the process of neuropathology. Excessive choline treatment for Tg mice was used to investigate the role of abnormal choline metabolism on the cognitive functions. Our results showed that gut dysbiosis, neuroinflammation response, Aβ deposition, tau hyperphosphorylation, TMAO overproduction and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5)/transcription 3 (STAT3) activation occurred in Tg mice age-dependently. Disordered microbiota of aged Tg mice accelerated AD pathology in young Tg mice, with the activation of CDK5/STAT3 signaling in the brains. On the contrary, faecal microbiota transplantation from WT mice alleviated the cognitive deficits, attenuated neuroinflammation, Aβ deposition, tau hyperphosphorylation, TMAO overproduction and suppressed CDK5/STAT3 pathway activation in Tg mice. Moreover, excessive choline treatment was also shown to aggravate the cognitive deficits, Aβ deposition, neuroinflammation and CDK5/STAT3 pathway activation. These findings provide a novel insight into the interaction between gut dysbiosis and AD progression, clarifying the important roles of gut microbiota-derived substances such as TMAO in AD neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Qu
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Qing-Qing Xu
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wen Yang
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Mei Zhong
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Qiuju Yuan
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hong Kong Science Park, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Yan-Fang Xian
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhi-Xiu Lin
- School of Chinese Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Hong Kong Institute of Integrative Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Zhang C, Qin S, Xie H, Qiu Q, Wang H, Zhang J, Luo D, Zhang J. RO4929097, a Selective γ-Secretase Inhibitor, Inhibits Subretinal Fibrosis Via Suppressing Notch and ERK1/2 Signaling in Laser-Induced Mouse Model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:14. [PMID: 36155746 PMCID: PMC9526367 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.10.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to explore whether RO4929097 (RO), a specific γ-secretase inhibitor, could inhibit the subretinal fibrosis in laser-induced mouse model and the relevant molecular mechanisms. Methods Male C57BL/6J mice were used to produce choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and subretinal fibrosis by laser photocoagulation, and RO was administered intravitreally 1 day after laser induction. The sizes of CNV and subretinal fibrosis were measured and quantified in both 2D and 3D constructions. The ARPE-19 cell line and primary human RPE (phRPE) cells were treated with TGFβ1, in combination with or without RO, to examine Notch related molecules, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), cell viability, migration, and contractile function, as well as the crosstalk between Notch and other EMT relevant signaling pathways. Results Intravitreal injection of RO reduced the sizes of both CNV and subretinal fibrosis in laser-induced young and old mice at day 7 and day 14 after laser induction. Moreover, EMT and Notch activation in RPE-choroid complexes from laser-induced mice were significantly attenuated by RO. In vitro, TGFβ1 activated Notch signaling and induced EMT in ARPE-19 cells, accompanied by enhanced EMT-related function, which were inhibited by RO. The inhibition of RO on EMT was further confirmed in TGFβ1-treated phRPE cells. Blockage of Notch signaling by RO could inhibit ERK1/2 signaling; whereas ERK1/2 inhibition had no effect on Notch. The action of RO was independent of Smad2/3 or p38, and co-inhibition of Notch and Smad2/3 showed synergistic effect on EMT inhibition. Conclusions RO exerts its antifibrotic effect by directly inhibiting Notch signaling and indirectly suppressing ERK1/2 signaling. Targeting Notch signaling might provide a therapeutic strategy in prevention and treatment of subretinal fibrosis in neovascular age-related macular degeneration (nAMD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoyang Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Shiyue Qin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Hai Xie
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Qinghua Qiu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China.,Department of Ophthalmology, Shigatse People's Hospital, Xizang, China
| | - Haiyan Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingting Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Dawei Luo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingfa Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital (Shanghai First People's Hospital), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Eye Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Ocular Fundus Diseases, Shanghai Engineering Center for Visual Science and Photomedicine, Shanghai Engineering Center for Precise Diagnosis and Treatment of Eye Diseases, Shanghai, China
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Jacobo A, Dasgupta A, Erzberger A, Siletti K, Hudspeth A. Notch-Mediated Determination of Hair-Bundle Polarity in Mechanosensory Hair Cells of the Zebrafish Lateral Line. Curr Biol 2019; 29:3579-3587.e7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.08.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Kumar D, Ganeshpurkar A, Kumar D, Modi G, Gupta SK, Singh SK. Secretase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: Long road ahead. Eur J Med Chem 2018; 148:436-452. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Wang BJ, Wu PY, Chen YW, Chang YT, Bhore N, Wu PF, Liao YF. Quantitative Measurement of γ-Secretase-mediated Amyloid Precursor Protein and Notch Cleavage in Cell-based Luciferase Reporter Assay Platforms. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29443039 DOI: 10.3791/56795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a pair of cell-based reporter gene assays to quantitatively measure γ-secretase cleavage of distinct substrates. This manuscript describes procedures that may be used to monitor γ-secretase-mediated cleavage of either APP-C99 or Notch, using a Gal4 promoter-driven firefly luciferase reporter system. These assays were established by stably co-transfecting HEK293 cells with the Gal4-driven luciferase reporter gene and either the Gal4/VP16-tagged C-terminal fragment of APP (APP-C99; CG cells), or the Gal4/VP16-tagged Notch-ΔE (NΔE; NG cells). Using these reporter assays in parallel, we have demonstrated that an ErbB2 inhibitor, CL-387,785, can preferentially suppress γ-secretase cleavage of APP-C99 in CG cells, but not NΔE in NG cells. The differential responses exhibited by the CG and NG cells, when treated with CL-387,785, represent a preferred characteristic for γ-secretase modulators, and these responses are in stark contrast to the pan-inhibition of γ-secretase induced by DAPT. Our studies provide direct evidence that γ-secretase activities toward different substrates can be differentiated in a cellular context. These new assays may therefore be useful tools in drug discovery for improved AD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Jeng Wang
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Pei-Yi Wu
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Yun-Wen Chen
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Yu-Tzu Chang
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Noopur Bhore
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Po-Fan Wu
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica
| | - Yung-Feng Liao
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Cellular and Organismic Biology, Academia Sinica;
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Bursavich MG, Harrison BA, Blain JF. Gamma Secretase Modulators: New Alzheimer's Drugs on the Horizon? J Med Chem 2016; 59:7389-409. [PMID: 27007185 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The rapidly aging population desperately requires new therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Despite years of pharmaceutical research, limited clinical success has been realized, with several failed disease modification therapies in recent years. On the basis of compelling genetic evidence, the pharmaceutical industry has put a large emphasis on brain beta amyloid (Aβ) either through its removal via antibodies or by targeting the proteases responsible for its production. In this Perspective, we focus on the development of small molecules that improve the activity of one such protease, gamma secretase, through an allosteric binding site to preferentially increase the concentration of the shorter non-amyloidogenic Aβ species. After a few early failures due to poor drug-like properties, the industry is now on the cusp of delivering gamma secretase modulators for clinical proof-of-mechanism studies that combine potency and efficacy with improved drug-like properties such as lower cLogP, high central nervous system multiparameter optimization scores, and high sp(3) character.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew G Bursavich
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Bryce A Harrison
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
| | - Jean-François Blain
- FORUM Pharmaceuticals , 225 Second Avenue, Waltham, Massachusetts 02451, United States
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Natural Product and Natural Product-Derived Gamma Secretase Modulators from Actaea Racemosa Extracts. MEDICINES 2015; 2:127-140. [PMID: 28930205 PMCID: PMC5456218 DOI: 10.3390/medicines2030127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is characterized by pathogenic oligomerization, aggregation, and deposition of amyloid beta peptide (Aβ), resulting in severe neuronal toxicity and associated cognitive dysfunction. In particular, increases in the absolute or relative level of the major long form of Aβ, Aβ42, are associated with increased cellular toxicity and rapidity of disease progression. As a result of this observation, screening to identify potential drugs to reduce the level of Aβ42 have been undertaken by way of modulating the proteolytic activity of the gamma secretase complex without compromising its action on other essential substrates such as Notch. In this review we summarize results from a program that sought to develop such gamma secretase modulators based on novel natural products identified in the extract of Actaea racemosa, the well-known botanical black cohosh. Following isolation of compound 1 (SPI-014), an extensive medicinal chemistry effort was undertaken to define the SAR of 1 and related semisynthetic compounds. Major metabolic and physicochemical liabilities in 1 were overcome including replacement of both the sugar and acetate moieties with more stable alternatives that improved drug-like properties and resulted in development candidate 25 (SPI-1865). Unanticipated off-target adrenal toxicity, however, precluded advancement of this series of compounds into clinical development.
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Liang H, Zhang Y, Shi X, Wei T, Lou J. Role of Notch-1 signaling pathway in PC12 cell apoptosis induced by amyloid beta-peptide (25-35). Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:1297-302. [PMID: 25221582 PMCID: PMC4160856 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.137577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that Notch-1 expression is increased in the hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease patients. We speculate that Notch-1 signaling may be involved in PC12 cell apoptosis induced by amyloid beta-peptide (25–35) (Aβ25–35). In the present study, PC12 cells were cultured with different doses (0, 0.1, 1.0, 10 and 100 nmol/L) of N-[N-(3,5-Difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester, a Notch-1 signaling pathway inhibitor, for 30 minutes. Then cultured cells were induced with Aβ25–35 for 48 hours. Pretreatment of PC12 cells with high doses of N-[N-(3,5-Difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester (> 10 nmol/L) prolonged the survival of PC12 cells after Aβ25–35 induction, decreased the expression of apoptosis-related proteins caspase-3, -8, -9, increased the activity of oxidative stress-related superoxide dismutase and catalase, inhibited the production of active oxygen, and reduced nuclear factor kappa B expression. This study indicates that the Notch-1 signaling pathway plays a pivotal role in Aβ25–35-induced PC12 apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Liang
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China ; Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan Province, China
| | - Yaozhou Zhang
- Department of Biotechnology, Xinyang Agricultural College, Xinyang, Henan Province, China
| | - Xiaoyan Shi
- Pharmaceutical College of Henan University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Tianxiang Wei
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
| | - Jiyu Lou
- Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China
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Pettersson M, Stepan AF, Kauffman GW, Johnson DS. Novel γ-secretase modulators for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: a review focusing on patents from 2010 to 2012. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2013; 23:1349-66. [PMID: 23875696 DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2013.821465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION γ-Secretase is the enzyme responsible for the final step of amyloid precursor protein proteolysis to generate Aβ peptides including Aβ42 which is believed to be a toxic species involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. γ-Secretase modulators (GSMs) have been shown to selectively lower Aβ42 production without affecting total Aβ levels or the formation of γ-secretase substrate intracellular domains such as APP intracellular domain and Notch intracellular domain. Therefore, GSMs have emerged as an important therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AD. AREAS COVERED The literature covering novel GSMs will be reviewed focusing on patents from 2010 to 2012. EXPERT OPINION During the last review period (2008 - 2010) considerable progress was made developing GSMs with improved potency for lowering Aβ42 levels, but most of the compounds resided in unfavorable central nervous system (CNS) drug space. In this review period (2010 - 2012), there is a higher percentage of potent GSM chemical matter that resides in favorable CNS drug space. It is anticipated that clinical candidates will emerge out of this cohort that will be able to test the GSM mechanism of action in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Pettersson
- Neuroscience Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Worldwide Research and Development , 700 Main Street, Cambridge, MA, 02139 , USA
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Loureiro RM, Dumin JA, McKee TD, Austin WF, Fuller NO, Hubbs JL, Shen R, Jonker J, Ives J, Bronk BS, Tate B. Efficacy of SPI-1865, a novel gamma-secretase modulator, in multiple rodent models. ALZHEIMERS RESEARCH & THERAPY 2013; 5:19. [PMID: 23597079 PMCID: PMC3707052 DOI: 10.1186/alzrt173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Modulation of the gamma-secretase enzyme, which reduces the production of the amyloidogenic Aβ42 peptide while sparing the production of other Aβ species, is a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Satori has identified a unique class of small molecule gamma-secretase modulators (GSMs) capable of decreasing Aβ42 levels in cellular and rodent model systems. The compound class exhibits potency in the nM range in vitro and is selective for lowering Aβ42 and Aβ38 while sparing Aβ40 and total Aβ levels. In vivo, a compound from the series, SPI-1865, demonstrates similar pharmacology in wild-type CD1 mice, Tg2576 mice and Sprague Dawley rats. Methods Animals were orally administered either a single dose of SPI-1865 or dosed for multiple days. Aβ levels were measured using a sensitive plate-based ELISA system (MSD) and brain and plasma exposure of drug were assessed by LC/MS/MS. Results In wild-type mice using either dosing regimen, brain Aβ42 and Aβ38 levels were decreased upon treatment with SPI-1865 and little to no statistically meaningful effect on Aβ40 was observed, reflecting the changes observed in vitro. In rats, brain Aβ levels were examined and similar to the mouse studies, brain Aβ42 and Aβ38 were lowered. Comparable changes were also observed in the Tg2576 mice, where Aβ levels were measured in brain as well as plasma and CSF. Conclusions Taken together, these data indicate that SPI-1865 is orally bioavailable, brain penetrant, and effective at lowering Aβ42 in a dose responsive manner. With this unique profile, the class of compounds represented by SPI-1865 may be a promising new therapy for Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn M Loureiro
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jo Ann Dumin
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Timothy D McKee
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Wesley F Austin
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Nathan O Fuller
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jed L Hubbs
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Ruichao Shen
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jeff Jonker
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Jeff Ives
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Brian S Bronk
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Barbara Tate
- Satori Pharmaceuticals, 281 Albany St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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