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De Francesco MA. Herpesviridae, Neurodegenerative Disorders and Autoimmune Diseases: What Is the Relationship between Them? Viruses 2024; 16:133. [PMID: 38257833 PMCID: PMC10818483 DOI: 10.3390/v16010133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease represent the most common forms of cognitive impairment. Multiple sclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system responsible for severe disability. An aberrant immune response is the cause of myelin destruction that covers axons in the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. Systemic lupus erythematosus is an autoimmune disease characterized by alteration of B cell activation, while Sjögren's syndrome is a heterogeneous autoimmune disease characterized by altered immune responses. The etiology of all these diseases is very complex, including an interrelationship between genetic factors, principally immune associated genes, and environmental factors such as infectious agents. However, neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases share proinflammatory signatures and a perturbation of adaptive immunity that might be influenced by herpesviruses. Therefore, they might play a critical role in the disease pathogenesis. The aim of this review was to summarize the principal findings that link herpesviruses to both neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases; moreover, briefly underlining the potential therapeutic approach of virus vaccination and antivirals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Antonia De Francesco
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Institute of Microbiology, University of Brescia-ASST Spedali Civili, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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2
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Levine KS, Leonard HL, Blauwendraat C, Iwaki H, Johnson N, Bandres-Ciga S, Ferrucci L, Faghri F, Singleton AB, Nalls MA. Virus exposure and neurodegenerative disease risk across national biobanks. Neuron 2023; 111:1086-1093.e2. [PMID: 36669485 PMCID: PMC10079561 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 104.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
With recent findings connecting the Epstein-Barr virus to an increased risk of multiple sclerosis and growing concerns regarding the neurological impact of the coronavirus pandemic, we examined potential links between viral exposures and neurodegenerative disease risk. Using time series data from FinnGen for discovery and cross-sectional data from the UK Biobank for replication, we identified 45 viral exposures significantly associated with increased risk of neurodegenerative disease and replicated 22 of these associations. The largest effect association was between viral encephalitis exposure and Alzheimer's disease. Influenza with pneumonia was significantly associated with five of the six neurodegenerative diseases studied. We also replicated the Epstein-Barr/multiple sclerosis association. Some of these exposures were associated with an increased risk of neurodegeneration up to 15 years after infection. As vaccines are currently available for some of the associated viruses, vaccination may be a way to reduce some risk of neurodegenerative disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin S Levine
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA
| | - Hampton L Leonard
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Cornelis Blauwendraat
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Hirotaka Iwaki
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA
| | - Sara Bandres-Ciga
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Luigi Ferrucci
- Longitudinal Studies Section, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Faraz Faghri
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Andrew B Singleton
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Mike A Nalls
- Center for Alzheimer's and Related Dementias (CARD), National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA; Data Tecnica International LLC, Washington DC, USA; Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Abstract
The new wave of anti-migraine agents is nothing less than a milestone in our battle to manage this devastating disease. However, concerns have recently increased regarding the safety of these drugs. CGRP, while known as a potent vasodilator, is also a key neural and immune modulator. The roles of CGRP in immune determination, have been studied in depth, with particular focus on its functional significance with respect to common immune challenges i.e., bacterial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections. This review discusses many potential areas of concern in regard to blocking CGRP function and its potential influence on immune milieus during infection, and the risk of adverse effects. Finally, this review recommends specific measures to be taken into consideration when administering anti-CGRP/CGRPR agents.
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Sochocka M, Sobczyński M, Ochnik M, Zwolińska K, Leszek J. Hampering Herpesviruses HHV-1 and HHV-2 Infection by Extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb) and Its Phytochemical Constituents. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2367. [PMID: 31681227 PMCID: PMC6803450 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of several anti-herpesviral agents, it should be emphasized that the need for new inhibitors is highly encouraged due to the increasing resistant viral strains as well as complications linked with periods of recurring viral replication and reactivation of latent herpes infection. Extract of Ginkgo biloba (EGb) is a common phytotherapeutics around the world with health benefits. Limited studies, however, have addressed the potential antiviral activities of EGb, including herpesviruses such as Human alphaherpesvirus 1 (HHV-1) and Human alphaherpesvirus 2 (HHV-2). We evaluated the antiviral activity of EGb and its phytochemical constituents: flavonoids and terpenes against HHV-1 and HHV-2. Pretreatment of the herpesviruses with EGb prior to infection of cells produced a remarkable anti-HHV-1 and anti-HHV-2 activity. The extract affected the viruses before adsorption to cell surface at non-cytotoxic concentrations. In this work, through a comprehensive anti-HHV-1 and anti-HHV-2 activity study, it was revealed that flavonoids, especially isorhamnetin, are responsible for the antiviral activity of EGb. Such activity was absent in quercetin and kaempferol. However, EGb showed the most potent antiviral potency compared to isorhamnetin. EGb could augment current therapies for herpes labialis and genital herpes. Moreover, the potential use of EGb in multidrug therapy with synthetic anti-herpes compounds might be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Sochocka
- Laboratory of Virology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Maciej Sobczyński
- Department of Genomics, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Michał Ochnik
- Laboratory of Virology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Zwolińska
- Laboratory of Virology, Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jerzy Leszek
- Department of Psychiatry, Wrocław Medical University, Wrocław, Poland
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Itzhaki RF, Lathe R. Herpes Viruses and Senile Dementia: First Population Evidence for a Causal Link. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 64:363-366. [PMID: 29889070 DOI: 10.3233/jad-180266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Three articles have very recently appeared that are of especial relevance to the causes of dementia and its potential treatment. The first two (Tsai et al., published in PLoS One in November 2017; Chen et al., published in the January/February 2018 issue of Journal of Clinical Psychiatry) demonstrate an increased risk of subsequent senile dementia (SD) development in patients with acute varicella zoster (herpes zoster) infection. These articles present data highly relevant to the third, and most important, paper-by Tzeng et al., published online in the journal Neurotherapeutics at the end of February 2018. These authors report that infection with a different herpes virus, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1), leads to a similarly increased risk of later developing SD. Further, when the authors looked at patients treated aggressively with antiherpetic medications at the time, the relative risk of SD was reduced by a factor of 10. It should be stressed that no investigations were made on subjects already suffering from SD, and that those treated were the few rare cases severely affected by HSV. Nonetheless, antiherpetic medication prevented later SD development in 90% of their study group. These articles provide the first population evidence for a causal link between herpes virus infection and senile dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth F Itzhaki
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.,Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, UK
| | - Richard Lathe
- Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Little France, Edinburgh, UK
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Acuña-Hinrichsen F, Muñoz M, Hott M, Martin C, Mancilla E, Salazar P, Leyton L, Zambrano A, Concha MI, Burgos PV, Otth C. Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Enhances Expression of the Synaptic Protein Arc for Its Own Benefit. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 12:505. [PMID: 30692913 PMCID: PMC6340317 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic virus able to reach the central nervous system (CNS) after primary infection in oronasal mucosa. HSV-1 establishes latency inside neurons due the repression of its gene expression process, which is related to periodic reactivations in response to cellular stress conditions, constituting a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The immediate-early gene Arc plays an essential role in neuronal morphology, synaptic plasticity and memory formation. Arc acts as a hub protein, interacting with components of the endocytic machinery required for AMPA receptor (AMPAR) recycling as well as with proteins of the post-synaptic density and actin cytoskeleton. However, to date, no studies have evaluated whether persistent neurotropic HSV-1 infection modulates the expression or function of Arc protein in brain tissue. Here, we report that neuronal in vivo and in vitro infection of HSV-1 significantly increases Arc protein levels, showing a robust perinuclear distribution in neuronal cell lines, a process that is dependent on an active HSV-1 replication cycle. Finally, we found that silencing Arc protein caused a decrease in HSV-1 proteins and viral progeny, suggesting that Arc is involved in the lifecycle of HSV-1. Our studies strongly suggest that pathogenicity of HSV-1 neuronal reactivations in humans could be mediated in part by Arc neuronal upregulation and its potential role in endocytic trafficking and AMPA-neuronal function impairment. Further studies are necessary to define whether this phenomenon could have repercussions in cognition and learning processes in infected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariela Muñoz
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Centro de Excelencia en Estudios Morfológicos y Quirúrgicos (CEMyQ), Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
| | - Melissa Hott
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Carolina Martin
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Evelyn Mancilla
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Paula Salazar
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Luis Leyton
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Angara Zambrano
- Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Margarita I Concha
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Patricia V Burgos
- Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina, Facultad de Ciencia y Facultad de Medicina, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile.,Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carola Otth
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,Center for Interdisciplinary Studies on the Nervous System (CISNe), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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Pretorius L, Kell DB, Pretorius E. Iron Dysregulation and Dormant Microbes as Causative Agents for Impaired Blood Rheology and Pathological Clotting in Alzheimer's Type Dementia. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:851. [PMID: 30519157 PMCID: PMC6251002 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease and other similar dementias are debilitating neurodegenerative disorders whose etiology and pathogenesis remain largely unknown, even after decades of research. With the anticipated increase in prevalence of Alzheimer’s type dementias among the more susceptible aging population, the need for disease-modifying treatments is urgent. While various hypotheses have been put forward over the last few decades, we suggest that Alzheimer’s type dementias are triggered by external environmental factors, co-expressing in individuals with specific genetic susceptibilities. These external stressors are defined in the Iron Dysregulation and Dormant Microbes (IDDM) hypothesis, previously put forward. This hypothesis is consistent with current literature in which serum ferritin levels of individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease are significantly higher compared those of age- and gender-matched controls. While iron dysregulation contributes to oxidative stress, it also causes microbial reactivation and virulence of the so-called dormant blood (and tissue) microbiome. Dysbiosis (changes in the microbiome) or previous infections can contribute to the dormant blood microbiome (atopobiosis1), and also directly promotes systemic inflammation via the amyloidogenic formation and shedding of potent inflammagens such as lipopolysaccharides. The simultaneous iron dysregulation and microbial aberrations affect the hematological system, promoting fibrin amylodiogenesis, and pathological clotting. Systemic inflammation and oxidative stress can contribute to blood brain barrier permeability and the ensuing neuro-inflammation, characteristic of Alzheimer’s type dementias. While large inter-individual variability exists, especially concerning disease pathogenesis, the IDDM hypothesis acknowledges primary causative factors which can be targeted for early diagnosis and/or for prevention of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesha Pretorius
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Douglas B Kell
- School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.,The Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Etheresia Pretorius
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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Itzhaki RF. Corroboration of a Major Role for Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:324. [PMID: 30405395 PMCID: PMC6202583 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Strong evidence has emerged recently for the concept that herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1) is a major risk for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This concept proposes that latent HSV1 in brain of carriers of the type 4 allele of the apolipoprotein E gene (APOE-ε4) is reactivated intermittently by events such as immunosuppression, peripheral infection, and inflammation, the consequent damage accumulating, and culminating eventually in the development of AD. Population data to investigate this epidemiologically, e.g., to find if subjects treated with antivirals might be protected from developing dementia—are available in Taiwan, from the National Health Insurance Research Database, in which 99.9% of the population has been enrolled. This is being extensively mined for information on microbial infections and disease. Three publications have now appeared describing data on the development of senile dementia (SD), and the treatment of those with marked overt signs of disease caused by varicella zoster virus (VZV), or by HSV. The striking results show that the risk of SD is much greater in those who are HSV-seropositive than in seronegative subjects, and that antiviral treatment causes a dramatic decrease in number of subjects who later develop SD. It should be stressed that these results apply only to those with severe cases of HSV1 or VZV infection, but when considered with the over 150 publications that strongly support an HSV1 role in AD, they greatly justify usage of antiherpes antivirals to treat AD. Three other studies are described which directly relate to HSV1 and AD: they deal respectively with lysosomal changes in HSV1-infected cell cultures, with evidence for a role of human herpes virus type 6 and 7 (HHV6 and HHV7) in AD, and viral effects on host gene expression, and with the antiviral characteristics of beta amyloid (Aβ). Three indirectly relevant studies deal respectively with schizophrenia, relating to antiviral treatment to target HSV1, with the likelihood that HSV1 is a cause of fibromyalgia (FM), and with FM being associated with later development of SD. Studies on the link between epilepsy, AD and herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) are described also, as are the possible roles of APOE-ε4, HHV6 and HSV1 in epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth F Itzhaki
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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