Mechanical factors explain development of cam-type deformity

Asymptomatic female softball pitchers have altered hip morphology and cartilage composition

Few studies have explored hip morphology and cartilage composition in female athletes or the impact of asymmetric repetitive loading, such as occurs during softball pitching. The current cross-sectional study assessed bilateral bony hip morphology on computed tomography imaging in collegiate-level softball pitchers ('Pitch1', n = 25) and cross-country runners ('Run', n = 13). Magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess cartilage relaxation times in a second cohort of pitchers ('Pitch2', n = 10) and non-athletic controls ('Con', n = 4). Pitch1 had 52% greater maximum alpha angle than Run (p < 0.001) and were 21.3 (95% CI 2.4 to 192.0) times more likely to have an alpha angle ≥ 60° within at least one hip. Pitch2 had longer T2 relaxation times in the superior femoral cartilage of the drive leg (same side as the throwing arm) and stride leg than Con (all p < 0.02). The drive leg in Pitch2 had longer T1ρ and T2 relaxation times in the superior femoral cartilage compared to the stride leg (all p ≤ 0.03). Asymptomatic softball pitchers exhibit altered bony hip morphology and cartilage composition compared to cross-country runners and non-athletic controls, respectively. They also exhibit asymmetry in cartilage composition. Further studies with larger sample sizes are warranted and any potential long-term consequences of the changes in terms of symptom and osteoarthritis development requires investigation.

The Association Between the Development of Cam Morphology During Skeletal Growth in High-Impact Athletes and the Presence of Cartilage Loss and Labral Damage in Adulthood: A Prospective Cohort Study With a 12-Year Follow-up

BACKGROUND

Cam morphology develops during skeletal growth, but its influence on cartilage and the labrum in high-impact athletes later in life is unknown.

PURPOSE

To (1) explore the association between the presence and duration of cam morphology during adolescence and the cartilage and labral status 7 to 12 years later and (2) report the prevalence of cartilage loss and labral damage in a population of young male athletes (<32 years old) who played professional soccer during skeletal growth.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study (Prognosis); Level of evidence, 2.

METHODS

A total of 89 healthy male academy soccer players from the Dutch soccer club Feyenoord (aged 12-19 years) were included at baseline. At baseline and 2.5- and 5-year follow-ups, standardized supine anteroposterior pelvis and frog-leg lateral radiographs of each hip were obtained. At 12-year follow-up, magnetic resonance imaging of both hips was performed. Cam morphology was defined by a validated alpha angle ≥60° on radiographs at baseline or 2.5- or 5-year follow-up when the growth plates were closed. Hips with the presence of cam morphology at baseline or at 2.5-year follow-up were classified as having a "longer duration" of cam morphology. Hips with cam morphology only present since 5-year follow-up were classified as having a "shorter duration" of cam morphology. At 12-year follow-up, cartilage loss and labral abnormalities were assessed semiquantitatively. Associations were estimated using logistic regression, adjusted for age and body mass index.

RESULTS

Overall, 35 patients (70 hips) with a mean age of 28.0 ± 2.0 years and mean body mass index of 24.1 ± 1.8 participated at 12-year follow-up. Cam morphology was present in 56 of 70 hips (80%). The prevalence of cartilage loss was 52% in hips with cam morphology and 21% in hips without cam morphology (adjusted odds ratio, 4.52 [95% CI, 1.16-17.61]; P = .03). A labral abnormality was present in 77% of hips with cam morphology and in 64% of hips without cam morphology (adjusted odds ratio, 1.99 [95% CI, 0.59-6.73]; P = .27). The duration of cam morphology did not influence these associations.

CONCLUSION

The development of cam morphology during skeletal growth was associated with future magnetic resonance imaging findings consistent with cartilage loss in young adults but not with labral abnormalities.

Effects of joint loading on the development of capital femoral epiphysis morphology

INTRODUCTION

The deleterious influence of increased mechanical forces on capital femoral epiphysis development is well established; however, the growth of the physis in the absence of such forces remains unclear. The hips of non-ambulatory cerebral palsy (CP) patients provide a weight-restricted (partial weightbearing) model which can elucidate the influence of decreased mechanical forces on the development of physis morphology, including features related to development of slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE). Here we used 3D image analysis to compare the physis morphology of children with non-ambulatory CP, as a model for abnormal hip loading, with age-matched native hips.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CT images of 98 non-ambulatory CP hips (8-15 years) and 80 age-matched native control hips were used to measure height, width, and length of the tubercle, depth, width, and length of the metaphyseal fossa, and cupping height across different epiphyseal regions. The impact of age on morphology was assessed using Pearson correlations. Mixed linear model was used to compare the quantified morphological features between partial weightbearing hips and full weightbearing controls.

RESULTS

In partial weightbearing hips, tubercle height and length along with fossa depth and length significantly decreased with age, while peripheral cupping height increased with age (r > 0.2, P < 0.04). Compared to normally loaded (full weightbearing) hips and across all age groups, partially weightbearing hips' epiphyseal tubercle height and length were smaller (P < .05), metaphyseal fossa depth was larger (P < .01), and posterior, inferior, and anterior peripheral cupping heights were smaller (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Smaller epiphyseal tubercle and peripheral cupping with greater metaphyseal fossa size in partial weightbearing hips suggests that the growing capital femoral epiphysis requires mechanical stimulus to adequately develop epiphyseal stabilizers. Deposit low prevalence and relevance of SCFE in CP, these findings highlight both the role of normal joint loading in proper physis development and how chronic abnormal loading may contribute to various pathomorphological changes of the proximal femur (i.e., capital femoral epiphysis).

Can pelvic tilt cause cam morphology? A computational model of proximal femur development mechanobiology

Cam deformity of the proximal femur is a risk factor for early osteoarthritis. While cam morphology is related to mechanical force at a formative time in skeletal growth, the specific problematic forces contributing to the development of cam morphology remain unknown. Individuals with femoroacetabular impingement syndrome exhibit an increased anterior pelvic tilt during walking, which alters their hip joint forces. This study aims to investigate the influence of altered joint force caused by anterior pelvic tilt on proximal femur epiphyseal growth and the potential association between increased anterior pelvic tilt and the development of cam morphology. A computational model is utilized to simulate the endochondral ossification in the proximal femur and predict cam formation. Cartilage growth and ossification patterns for a gait cycle with and without anterior pelvic tilt were modeled. The simulated growth results indicated an increased alpha angle (53° for typically developing to 68° for anterior pelvic tilt) and aspherical femoral head in the model with anterior pelvic tilt. We conclude that anterior pelvic tilt may be sufficient to cause the formation of the cam morphology. Identifying the critical mechanical conditions that increase the risk of cam deformity could help prevent this condition by adjusting the physical activities before skeletal maturity.

Return to sport after arthroscopic surgery for femoroacetabular impingement

BACKGROUND

Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) is common among the active and young population. The present study analysed the rate of return to sport, related influencing factors, and the sport activity level according to the Hip Outcome Score - Sport-Specific Subscale (HOS-SSS).

METHODS

The literature search was performed in December 2020. All clinical trials investigating HOS-SSS and/or return to sport after arthroscopic treatment for FAI were considered for inclusion. The outcomes of interest were to analyse the rate of return to sport and the sport activity level according to the HOS-SSS in patients who underwent arthroscopic osteoplasty for FAI.

RESULTS

Data from 41 studies (4063 procedures) were retrieved. A total of 88.75% (581 of 655) of patients returned to sports within a mean of 37.4 ± 16.5 months. The HOS-SSS score improved from 45.0 ± 10.6 to 73.1 ± 9.5 (P < 0.0001) at last follow-up. The following baseline characteristics evidenced positive association with post-operative activity level: lighter weight (P = 0.01), younger age (P = 0.001), Tönnis angle grade I (P = 0.009), greater HHS (P = 0.01), NAHS (P < 0.0001) and HOS-ADL (P = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic treatment for FAI resulted in excellent results in terms of return to sport. Moreover, lighter weight and younger age, greater HHS, NAHS, HOS-ADL at baseline were positively associated with post-operative sport activity level.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, systematic review.

Little or No Differences in Hip Morphology Between Professional Dancers and Controls: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

To systematically evaluate and synthesize the literature on bony hip morphology of professional dancers, as measured by 2D or 3D imaging techniques.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was performed on November 20, 2020, using MEDLINE, Embase, and Cochrane. Clinical studies were eligible if they reported on hip morphology of professional dancers. Two independent reviewers screened titles, abstracts, and full-texts to determine eligibility; performed data extraction; and assessed the quality of eligible studies according to the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist. This systematic review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses guidelines.

MAIN RESULTS

The search returned 1384 records; 449 were duplicates, 923 were excluded after title/abstract/full-text screening, and 12 were eligible, reporting on 447 individuals (352 professional dancers and 95 controls). The JBI checklist indicated that 11 studies scored ≥4 points. For professional dancers, lateral center edge angle was 22.4 to 30.8 degrees, acetabular version was 6.7 to 13.5 degrees, neck-shaft angle was 132.5 to 139.5 degrees, and femoral version was 4.7 to 14.4 degrees. Statistically significant differences between dancers and controls were found in some of the studies for acetabular version, neck-shaft angle, and femoral version, although only femoral version showed clinically relevant differences.

CONCLUSIONS

The bony hip morphology of professional dancers is similar to that of other athletes and age-matched controls, which is in contrast to the authors' clinical experience. We presume that the abnormal morphology we have seen at the clinic is only present in symptomatic dancers who require total hip arthroplasty (THA) and is not a general characteristic of all dancers. Further studies should compare the hip morphology of dancers undergoing THA with matched nondancers.

Extent of Cam Resection Relative to Epiphyseal Line and Its Association With Clinical Outcomes After Arthroscopic Treatment for Femoroacetabular Syndrome

Background:

Inadequate resection of cam lesions can cause inferior outcomes after hip arthroscopy and result in revision surgery for femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS).

Purpose:

To evaluate the association between postoperative cam lesions measured using the proximal boundaries of resection area (PBRE) relative to the epiphyseal line and 2-year outcomes after hip arthroscopy.

Study Design:

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

Included were patients with FAIS who had undergone primary hip arthroscopy between 2016 and 2018. The PBRE was calculated by measuring the linear distance from the PBRE to the epiphyseal line, dividing it by the diameter of the femoral head, and multiplying by 100; PBRE measurements were made at the 12-, 1-, and 2-o’clock positions on postoperative hip computed tomography. Within each clockface position, patients were divided into subgroups depending on whether their postoperative PBRE was greater than a half standard deviation above the mean (adequate resection) or less than or equal to a half standard deviation above the mean (inadequate resection). Patient-reported outcomes (PROs; Hip Outcome Score–Activities of Daily Living [HOS-ADL], International Hip Outcome Tool–Short Form [iHOT-12], modified Harris Hip Score [mHHS], and pain visual analog scale [VAS]) and rates of achieving the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) and patient-acceptable symptomatic state (PASS) were compared among the subgroups.

Results:

Included were 80 pairs of hips at 12 o’clock, 81 pairs of hips at 1 o’clock, and 80 pairs of hips at 2 o’clock. All subgroups demonstrated significant improvements in PRO scores at a minimum 2-year follow-up compared with preoperatively. At the 12-o’clock position, the subgroup with adequate resection had significantly superior HOS-ADL ( P = .004), iHOT-12 ( P < .001), and mHHS ( P < .001) scores and were more likely to achieve the MCID for the iHOT-12 score ( P = .035) and the PASS for the HOS-ADL ( P = .003), iHOT-12 ( P = .007), and mHHS ( P < .001) scores compared with the matched subgroup. There were no significant differences in PRO scores or rates of MCID and PASS for the 1- or 2-o’clock groups.

Conclusion:

The epiphyseal line may be a useful and reproducible landmark measurement for cam-type deformity. Patients considered to have inadequate resection at 12 o’clock had lower outcome scores at a minimum 2-year follow-up.

High bone mass and cam morphology are independently related to hip osteoarthritis: findings from the High Bone Mass cohort

BACKGROUND

High bone mass (HBM, BMD Z-score ≥  + 3.2) and cam morphology (bulging of lateral femoral head) are associated with greater odds of prevalent radiographic hip osteoarthritis (rHOA). As cam morphology is itself a manifestation of increased bone deposition around the femoral head, it is conceivable that cam morphology may mediate the relationship between HBM and rHOA. We therefore aimed to determine if individuals with HBM have increased odds of prevalent cam morphology. In addition, we investigated whether the relationship between cam and prevalent and incident osteoarthritis was preserved in a HBM population.

METHODS

In the HBM study, a UK based cohort of adults with unexplained HBM and their relatives and spouses (controls), we determined the presence of cam morphology using semi-automatic methods of alpha angle derivation from pelvic radiographs. Associations between HBM status and presence of cam morphology, and between cam morphology and presence of rHOA (or its subphenotypes: osteophytes, joint space narrowing, cysts, and subchondral sclerosis) were determined using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for age, sex, height, weight, and adolescent physical activity levels. The association between cam at baseline and incidence of rHOA after an average of 8 years was determined. Generalised estimating equations accounted for individual-level clustering.

RESULTS

The study included 352 individuals, of whom 235 (66.7%) were female and 234 (66.5%) had HBM. Included individuals contributed 694 hips, of which 143 had a cam deformity (20.6%). There was no evidence of an association between HBM and cam morphology (OR = 0.97 [95% CI: 0.63-1.51], p = 0.90) but a strong relationship was observed between cam morphology and rHOA (OR = 3.96 [2.63-5.98], p = 5.46 × 10-11) and rHOA subphenotypes joint space narrowing (OR = 3.70 [2.48-5.54], p = 1.76 × 10-10), subchondral sclerosis (OR = 3.28 [1.60-6.60], p = 9.57 × 10-4) and osteophytes (OR = 3.01 [1.87-4.87], p = 6.37 × 10-6). Cam morphology was not associated with incident osteoarthritis (OR = 0.76 [0.16-3.49], p = 0.72).

CONCLUSIONS

The relationship between cam morphology and rHOA seen in other studies is preserved in a HBM population. This study suggests that the risk of OA conferred by high BMD and by cam morphology are mediated via distinct pathways.

[Epidemiology, prevention and early detection of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS)]

During the last two decades femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS) has gained importance and is one of the main causes of hip pain in young adults. FAIS is a motion-related clinical pathology of the hip that represents symptomatic contact between the proximal femur and the acetabulum. Symptoms, clinical signs, and imaging findings must be present to diagnose FAIS. Especially the development of the cam-FAIS seems to be associated with an overuse of the growth plate during adolescence. Here an approach may be found for the prevention of the development of FAIS. Sufficient evidence through high-quality long-term results is yet lacking.

A lifespan approach to osteoarthritis prevention

Prevention is an attractive solution for the staggering and increasingly unmanageable burden of osteoarthritis. Despite this, the field of osteoarthritis prevention is relatively immature. To date, most of what is known about preventing osteoarthritis and risk factors for osteoarthritis is relative to the disease (underlying biology and pathophysiology) of osteoarthritis, with few studies considering risk factors for osteoarthritis illness, the force driving the personal, financial and societal burden. In this narrative review we will discuss what is known about osteoarthritis prevention, propose actionable prevention strategies related to obesity and joint injury which have emerged as important modifiable risk factors, identify where evidence is lacking, and give insight into what might be possible in terms of prevention by focussing on a lifespan approach to the illness of osteoarthritis, as opposed to a structural disease of the elderly. By targeting a non-specialist audience including scientists, clinicians, students, industry employees and others that are interested in osteoarthritis but who do not necessarily focus on osteoarthritis, the goal is to generate discourse and motivate inquiry which propel the field of osteoarthritis prevention into the mainstream.

Activity Level and Sport Type in Adolescents Correlate with the Development of Cam Morphology

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of the volume and type of sport on the development of cam-type femoroacetabular impingement and acetabular dysplasia.

Relationship between cam morphology, hip symptoms, and hip osteoarthritis: the Musculoskeletal pain in Ullersaker STudy (MUST) cohort

BACKGROUND

The primary aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of cam morphology in a cohort of people aged 40-55 years. Secondary aims were to: (1) determine differences in participant characteristics, physical impairments, radiographic and ultrasound appearances of people with and without cam morphology; and (2) explore associations between cam morphology and radiographic measures of hip osteoarthritis (OA).

METHODS

107 people (68% women; 49 ± 4 years) from the Musculoskeletal pain in Ullensaker (MUST) Study underwent the clinical and imaging examinations. Examinations included questionnaires, hip range, functional task performance, pelvic radiographs and ultrasound. Alpha angle and radiographic hip OA (Kellgren Lawrence (KL) and minimal joint space (MJS)) were determined.

RESULTS

The prevalence of cam morphology was 42% and was bilateral in 47%. People with cam morphology were 6 times more likely to have a KL score ⩾2 (adjusted odds ratio [95% confidence intervals, p-value]) 6.386 [1.582-37.646, p = 0.012]) and 4 times more likely to have MJS <2.0 mm (adjusted odds ratio 4.032 [1.031-12.639, p = 0.045]). The prevalence of radiographic OA features ranged from 4-13% in people with cam morphology, and 0-3% in those without. Those with cam morphology also demonstrated reduced hip flexion and rotation range (p = 0.018-0.036) compared with those without. There was no association between ultrasonic features and patient reported outcomes, and cam morphology.

CONCLUSIONS

In a cohort aged 40-55 years, the prevalence of cam morphology was high (42%), with a significant relationship between cam morphology and radiographic measures of hip OA. Further longitudinal studies should explore the relationship between cam morphology and hip OA in younger people.

The Effects of Physical Activity on Physeal and Skeletal Development

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There is increasing evidence in the literature regarding the important health impact of and risk factors for injury in youth sport.

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Increasing pediatric and adolescent activity intensity, such as is seen in earlier single-sport focus and specialization, may be associated with morphological changes in the growing skeleton.

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Chronic subacute injury to the developing physes in the active child can lead to stress on the growth plate and surrounding tissues that induces developmental morphological changes in the joint.

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There is evidence to suggest that frequent participation in sports that place particular stress across the physes of the proximal humerus, the proximal femur, and the distal radius can be associated with an increased risk of inducing developmental and morphological changes that could lead to future joint dysfunction and premature degeneration.

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Additional research is necessary to better define the pathoetiology of activity-mediated morphological changes, as well as to create and validate parameters for safe involvement in competitive physical activities.

How does the cam morphology develop in athletes? A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

A higher prevalence of cam morphology has been reported in the athletic population but the development of the cam morphology is not fully understood. The purpose of this systematic review is to establish the timing of development of the cam morphology in athletes, the proximal femoral morphologies associated with its development, and other associated factors.

DESIGN

Embase, MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library were searched for articles related to development of the cam morphology, and PRISMA guidelines were followed. Data was pooled using random effects meta-analysis. Study quality was assessed using the Downs and Black criteria and evidence quality using the GRADE framework.

RESULTS

This search identified 16 articles involving 2,028 participants. In males, alpha angle was higher in athletes with closed physes than open physes (SMD 0.71; 95% CI 0.23, 1.19). Prevalence of cam morphology was associated with age during adolescence when measured per hip (β 0.055; 95% CI 0.020, 0.091) and per individual (β 0.049; 95% CI 0.034, 0.064). Lateral extension of the epiphysis was associated with an increased alpha angle (r 0.68; 95% CI 0.63, 0.73). A dose-response relationship was frequently reported between sporting frequency and cam morphology. There was a paucity of data regarding the development of cam morphology in females.

CONCLUSIONS

Very low and low quality evidence suggests that in the majority of adolescent male athletes, osseous cam morphology developed during skeletal immaturity, and that prevalence increases with age. Very low quality evidence suggests that osseous cam morphology development was related to lateral extension of the proximal femoral epiphysis.

Arthroscopic treatment for femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS) in adolescents—5-year follow-up

To report the minimum 5-year outcome after hip arthroscopy with labral repair in adolescents. From 2011 to 2014, 29 consecutive patients with a mean age 16.3 years (range 12.7–19.8 years) underwent hip arthroscopy treatment for femoroacetabular impingement syndrome. Patient-related outcome measures (PROMs) including modified Harris Hip Score (mHHS), Visual Analog Scale (VAS) for pain and Copenhagen Hip and Groin Outcome Score (HAGOS) were used preoperatively and at follow-up (FU). Percentage of patients achieving minimum clinically important difference (MCID) and substantial clinical benefit (SCB) for mHHS and HAGOS were determined. Mean FU was 6.7 years (range 5–9.6 years), and a 100% FU was accomplished. Significant improvements were seen for all PROMs at FU in patients not having a periacetabular osteotomy (PAO) with VAS pain score improving from mean 62 to 9, mHHS from 58 to 94 and HAGOS improved in all subgroups. For mHHS, SCB changes were achieved by 76% and MCID by 76% of the patients. Percentage of patients achieving MCID for HAGOS subgroups were 81% for pain, 67% for symptoms, 76% for physical function in daily living, 76% for physical function in sport and recreation, 81% for participation in physical activities and 81% for hip-related quality of life. Two patients had revision hip arthroscopy. PAO was later performed in three patients. The risk of further surgery with center edge (CE) bony edge (CEB) <30° was 42% and 0% with CEB ≥30°. Adolescents having hip arthroscopy with labral repair and resection of cam and pincer morphology achieve significant improvements at mean 6.7 years of FU. CEB < 30° increases the risk of further surgery.

Does the Capital Femoral Physis Bony MorphologyDiffer in Children with Symptomatic Cam-type Femoroacetabular Impingement

BACKGROUND

The epiphyseal tubercle, the corresponding metaphyseal fossa, and peripheral cupping are key stabilizers of the femoral head-neck junction. Abnormal development of these features in the setting of supraphysiologic physeal stress under high forces (for example, forces that occur during sports activity) may result in a cam morphology. Although most previous studies on cam-type femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) have mainly focused on overgrowth of the peripheral cupping, little is known about detailed morphologic changes of the epiphyseal and metaphyseal bony surfaces in patients with cam morphology.

QUESTIONS/PURPOSES

(1) Does the CT-based bony morphology of the peripheral epiphyseal cupping differ between patients with a cam-type morphology and asymptomatic controls (individuals who did not have hip pain)? (2) Does the CT-based bony morphology of the epiphyseal tubercle differ between patients with a cam-type morphology and asymptomatic controls? (3) Does the CT-based bony morphology of the metaphyseal fossa differ between patients with a cam-type morphology and asymptomatic controls?

METHODS

After obtaining institutional review board approval for this study, we retrospectively searched our institutional database for patients aged 8 to 15 years with a diagnosis of an idiopathic cam morphology who underwent a preoperative CT evaluation of the affected hip between 2005 and 2018 (n = 152). We excluded 96 patients with unavailable CT scans and 40 patients with prior joint diseases other than cam-type FAI. Our search resulted in 16 patients, including nine males. Six of 16 patients had a diagnosis of bilateral FAI, for whom we randomly selected one side for the analysis. Three-dimensional (3-D) models of the proximal femur were generated to quantify the size of the peripheral cupping (peripheral growth of the epiphysis around the metaphysis), epiphyseal tubercle (a beak-like prominence in the posterosuperior aspect of the epiphysis), and metaphyseal fossa (a groove on the metaphyseal surface corresponding to the epiphyseal tubercle). A general linear model was used to compare the quantified anatomic features between the FAI cohort and 80 asymptomatic hips (aged 8 to 15 years; 50% male) after adjusting for age and sex. A secondary analysis using the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test was performed to assess side-to-side differences in quantified morphological features in 10 patients with unilateral FAI.

RESULTS

After adjusting for age and sex, we found that patients with FAI had larger peripheral cupping in the anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior regions than control patients who did not have hip symptoms or radiographic signs of FAI (by 1.3- to 1.7-fold; p < 0.01 for all comparisons). The epiphyseal tubercle height and length were smaller in patients with FAI than in controls (by 0.3- to 0.6-fold; p < 0.02 for all comparisons). There was no difference in tubercle width between the groups. Metaphyseal fossa depth, width, and length were larger in patients with FAI than in controls (by 1.8- to 2.3-fold; p < 0.001 for all comparisons). For patients with unilateral FAI, we saw similar peripheral cupping but smaller epiphyseal tubercle (height and length) along with larger metaphyseal fossa (depth) in the FAI side compared with the uninvolved contralateral side.

CONCLUSION

Consistent with prior studies, we observed more peripheral cupping in patients with cam-type FAI than control patients without hip symptoms or radiographic signs of FAI. Interestingly, the epiphyseal tubercle height and length were smaller and the metaphyseal fossa was larger in hips with cam-type FAI, suggesting varying inner bone surface morphology of the growth plate. The docking mechanism between the epiphyseal tubercle and the metaphyseal fossa is important for epiphyseal stability, particularly at early ages when the peripheral cupping is not fully developed. An underdeveloped tubercle and a large fossa could be associated with a reduction in stability, while excessive peripheral cupping growth would be a factor related to improved physeal stability. This is further supported by observed side-to-side differences in tubercle and fossa morphology in patients with unilateral FAI. Further longitudinal studies would be worthwhile to study the causality and compensatory mechanisms related to epiphyseal and metaphyseal bony morphology in pathogenesis cam-type FAI. Such information will lay the foundation for developing imaging biomarkers to predict the risk of FAI or to monitor its progress, which are critical in clinical care planning.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, prognostic study.

The association of BMI and physical activity on acetabular dysplasia in children

BACKGROUND

Acetabular dysplasia is an important pre-disposing factor for osteoarthritis of the hip. However, it is not completely known how acetabular dysplasia develops during childhood.

OBJECTIVE

To study the prevalence of acetabular dysplasia and its association with body mass index (BMI) and physical activity in 9 year old children.

DESIGN

The population for this cross-sectional study was drawn from the ongoing prospective cohort study: Generation R. 9,778 mothers with a delivery date from March 2002 until January 2006 were enrolled. In a random subgroup of these children Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanning was performed at age 9.

EXPOSURES

BMI, standardized for the Dutch population and categorized in four groups based on extended international Obesity Task Force cut-offs: underweight, normal, overweight and obesity. Physical activity was based on time spent on playing outdoors, playing sports and walking/cycling to school.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The degree of acetabular dysplasia was determined with the centre-edge angle (CEA) and acetabular depth-width ratio (ADR) in DXA images of the hip.

RESULTS

1,188 DXA images of children's hips were available for analysis. The median age of the children was 9.86 years. Prevalence of dysplasia and mild dysplasia was respectively 6.3%; 25.6% with CEA and 4.8%; 25.0% with ADR. BMI was negatively associated with mild dysplasia (OR 0.80 CI 0.71-0.90). Obese children showed less mild dysplasia compared to normal children (OR 0.48 CI 0.24-0.97) in unadjusted analysis. Physical activity represented by walking to school showed a statistically significant negative association with mild dysplasia (OR 0.87 CI 0.76-0.99). After adjustment for age, ethnicity, sex, first born, breech presentation, birthweight, gestational age and Caesarean section, the patterns of association with dysplasia remained for both BMI and physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, being overweight and light physical activity were negatively associated with the development of (mild) acetabular dysplasia at the age of 9 years.

Clinical and radiological hip parameters do not precede, but develop simultaneously with cam morphology: a 5-year follow-up study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to (1) investigate whether radiographic and clinical parameters, which influence how stresses during sporting activities act on the proximal femur, are associated with cam morphology or (2) precede cam morphology development.

METHODS

Young male football players participated at baseline (n = 89, 12-19 years of age), 2.5-year (n = 63) and 5-year follow-up (n = 49). Standardized anteroposterior pelvic and frog-leg lateral radiographs were obtained at each time-point. Cam morphology was quantified by an alpha angle ≥ 60°, and large cam morphology ≥ 78°. The neck-shaft angle (NSA), epiphyseal extension (EE), lateral center-edge angle (LCEA) and hip internal rotation (IR) were also measured. Cross-sectional associations between NSA, EE, LCEA and IR and (large) cam morphology were studied at all time-points. To study whether these variables preceded cam morphology development, hips without cam morphology at baseline were studied prospectively.

RESULTS

A lower NSA, a higher EE and limited IR were consistently associated with cam morphology at all three time-points. These differences were more pronounced in hips with large cam morphology. No association between cam morphology and the LCEA was found. None of the parameters studied preceded cam morphology development.

CONCLUSION

Cam morphology developed simultaneously with a varus orientation, growth plate extension towards the femoral neck and limited hip internal rotation. These parameters did not precede cam morphology development. The hip parameters studied cannot be used to identify individuals at risk of developing cam morphology.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Genu varum and football participation: Does football participation affect lower extremity alignment in adolescents?

BACKGROUND

Genu varum is one of the most common anatomical variations of knee alignment which is considered a risk factor for anterior knee pain and anterior cruciate ligament injury among football players. Considering that millions of children participate in high-level football training, the purpose of this study was to determine the genu varum development in adolescent football players and non-athlete peers. The hypothesis of this study was that genu varum incidence was higher in adolescent football players compared with non-athletic peers.

METHODS

The design was a cross-sectional study. Two-hundred and thirty-seven male football players (FG) and aged-matched and anthropometrically similar non-athletes (CG) were recruited into the study. The quadriceps angle and intercondylar-intermalleolar distance were measured to evaluate the leg alignment. The distance between the medial edges of the condyles and malleoli was measured in millimeters using a digital caliper while angle measurements were performed using a photographic technique in a standing position. To analyze the variables, comparison, correlation and regression statistical tests were performed.

RESULTS

The intercondylar-intermalleolar distance and quadriceps angle values were significantly higher in FG than CG in all ages. In FG, a very strong correlation was found between number of training years and the intercondylar-intermalleolar distance. The prevalence of genu varum was markedly higher in FG than CG (~37% vs. 2%, respectively) based on intercondylar-intermalleolar distance.

CONCLUSION

This study determined that the prevalence of genu varum and abnormal quadriceps angles in adolescent football players is significantly higher compared with their non-athletic peers.

Characteristics of Soccer Players Undergoing Primary Hip Arthroscopy for Femoroacetabular Impingement: A Sex- and Competitive Level-Specific Analysis

BACKGROUND

Radiographic features of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) are prevalent in kicking athletes, especially soccer players. However, there remains a paucity of data on the characteristics of symptomatic soccer players with an established diagnosis of FAI.

PURPOSE

To report on patient demographics, injury, and clinical and radiographic characteristics in a large cohort of soccer players who underwent primary hip arthroscopy for FAI and to perform a sex- and competition level-specific analysis of these data.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

An institutional hip preservation registry containing 3318 consecutive primary hip arthroscopies for FAI performed between March 2010 and January 2016 was retrospectively reviewed for patients identified as soccer players. Patient demographics, injury characteristics, and clinical and radiographic findings were recorded, and sex- and competition level-specific differences were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 421 hips (336 soccer players) were identified, including 257 (61.0%) men and 164 (39.0%) women. Of these, 105 (24.9%) were reported as highly competitive, 194 (46.1%) as competitive, 75 (17.8%) as recreational, and 47 (11.2%) did not report a level. The majority of the 336 soccer players (231 hips; 55%) reported chronic hip pain lasting >6 months with no acute injury at the initial visit. Alpha angle, coronal center-edge angle, and femoral version on computed tomography scan measured 64.5°± 12°, 32.3°± 9°, and 13.7°± 10° (mean ± SD), respectively. There were 230 (55%) hips with a type 2 anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS), 78 (18.5%) with a type 1 AIIS, and 19 (4.5%) with a type 3 AIIS. When compared with male athletes, female athletes had more hip internal rotation on physical examination (14.9° vs 8°; P < .001), lower alpha angles (57.5° vs 68.5°; P < .001), and lower-grade AIIS morphology (P = .003). Acute injury as the reason for hip symptoms was most likely in the highly competitive group (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Female soccer players were more likely to have less severe clinical and radiographic findings than were male soccer players. Acute injury as the cause of hip symptoms was more common in highly competitive players.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Focusing on soccer players with an established FAI diagnosis, the findings of this study suggest that there are sex- and competition level-based differences in the presentation, physical examination, and imaging characteristics among the players. These findings can better guide clinicians in the diagnostic evaluation of symptomatic soccer players with FAI and in tailoring treatment recommendations to specific cohorts.

Normative Values for Capital Femoral Epiphyseal Extension of the Developing Hip Based on Age, Sex, and Oxford Bone Age

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence suggests that increasing capital femoral epiphyseal extension may be an adaptive response that underlies the development of most cam morphology, whereas slipped capital femoral epiphysis is associated with its deficiency. However, there is an absence of rigorous data on the normal development of epiphyseal extension in the hip joint in modern adolescents. The aim of this study was to establish normative values for anterior and superior epiphyseal extension in a normal adolescent control population.

METHODS

A total of 210 pediatric subjects (420 hips) between the ages of 8 and 17 years old at the time of presentation who received pelvic radiographs were retrospectively reviewed. Basic demographic data were collected. All subjects with underlying hip pathology were excluded. Epiphyseal extension ratio (EER) was measured, defined as the ratio of extension of the capital femoral epiphysis down the femoral neck relative to the diameter of the femoral head. Superior EER was measured on the anterioposterior view and anterior EER on the frog-leg lateral view bilaterally. Skeletal maturity was graded based on Oxford bone age (OBA) at the proximal femur.

RESULTS

The superior EER increased from 0.63±0.05 at age 8 to 0.80±0.05 at age 17. The anterior EER similarly increased from 0.56±0.06 at age 8 to 0.74±0.05 at age 17. The superior and anterior EERs increased with age in a linear fashion for males (r=0.80 and 0.75, respectively) and females (r=0.67 and 0.65) through physeal closure. When subjects were standardized by the OBA stage of the femoral head, females and males showed no statistical difference at OBA stages 6, 7 or 8.

CONCLUSIONS

Superior and anterior EER increased throughout adolescent development until physeal closure. When controlling for skeletal maturity, there were no significant differences between sexes. This normative data may help guide future management and research of slipped capital femoral epiphysis and cam morphology.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, Diagnostic.

Using Magneto-Inertial Measurement Units to Pervasively Measure Hip Joint Motion during Sports

The use of wireless sensors to measure motion in non-laboratory settings continues to grow in popularity. Thus far, most validated systems have been applied to measurements in controlled settings and/or for prescribed motions. The aim of this study was to characterize adolescent hip joint motion of elite-level athletes (soccer players) during practice and recreationally active peers (controls) in after-school activities using a magneto-inertial measurement unit (MIMU) system. Opal wireless sensors (APDM Inc., Portland OR, USA) were placed at the sacrum and laterally on each thigh (three sensors total). Hip joint motion was characterized by hip acceleration and hip orientation for one hour of activity on a sports field. Our methods and analysis techniques can be applied to other joints and activities. We also provide recommendations in order to guide future work using MIMUs to pervasively assess joint motions of clinical relevance.

Pathomechanics Underlying Femoroacetabular Impingement Syndrome: Theoretical Framework to Inform Clinical Practice

Over the last decade, there has been a marked increase in attention to, and interest in, femoroacetabular impingement syndrome (FAIS). Despite continued efforts by researchers and clinicians, the development, progression, and appropriate treatment of FAIS remains unclear. While research across various disciplines has provided informative work in various areas related to FAIS, the underlying pathomechanics, time history, and interaction between known risk factors and symptoms remain poorly understood. The purpose of this perspective is to propose a theoretical framework that describes a potential pathway for the development and progression of FAIS. This paper aims to integrate relevant knowledge and understanding from the growing literature related to FAIS to provide a perspective that can inform future research and intervention efforts.

Young elite Alpine and Mogul skiers have a higher prevalence of cam morphology than non-athletes

PURPOSE

To investigate the prevalence of cam morphology in (1) a group of young elite Mogul and Alpine skiers compared with non-athletes and (2) between the sexes.

METHOD

The hip joints of 87 subjects [n = 61 young elite skiers (29 females and 32 males) and n = 26 non-athletes (17 females and 9 males)] were examined using MRI, for measurements of the presence of cam morphology (α-angle ≥ 55).

RESULTS

The skiers had a significantly higher prevalence of cam morphology compared with the non-athletes (49% vs 19%, p = 0.009). A significant difference (p < 0.001) was also found between females and males, where 22% of the females and 61% of the males had cam morphology. Among the skiers, there was also a significant difference (p < 0.001) between the sexes, where 28% of the females and 68% of the males had cam morphology. This difference between the sexes was not found in the non-athletic group. No significant differences were found between Mogul and Alpine skiers.

CONCLUSION

Young male elite skiers have a higher prevalence of cam morphology of the hips compared with non-athletes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II.

The clinical presentation, diagnosis and pathogenesis of symptomatic sports-related femoroacetabular impingement (SRFAI) in a consecutive series of 1021 athletic hips

AIM

To examine the pathogenesis and clinical presentation of sports-related femoroacetabular impingement (SRFAI) in a large consecutive series of symptomatic athletes.

METHODS

Between January 2009 and February 2017 prospectively collected data from competitive athletes within the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), and who subsequently underwent arthroscopic treatment for symptomatic FAI, were analysed. Data was collected using internationally validated health questionnaires (Harris Hip Score, UCLA, SF-36, WOMAC) and recognised clinical (ROM, symptom presentation, provocation tests) and radiological (AP pelvis, Dunn, False profile) indicators/measures of FAI.

RESULTS

A total of 1021 consecutive cases (mean 26.6 ± 6.2 years) were included. In every case, conservative treatment failed to resolve symptoms with athletes attending an average of 2.4 ± 1.1 health care professionals prior to referral. Symptoms developed gradually (78%) and consisted primarily of groin pain (76.1%) and hip stiffness (76.5%) following activity. An acetabular rim deformity (pincer) was present in all cases; a cam deformity in 72.1%. The prevalence and degree of cam deformity increased with progressing age groups (p < 0.001); mean lateral centre-edge angle remained static (p = 0.456). Increasing CEA, alpha angle and presence of rim fracture was associated with a reduction in all ranges of hip movement (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Symptomatic SRFAI presented in this large series of GAA athletes failed to resolve with non-operative treatment. Increasing hip deformity resulted in poorer ROM. Abnormal acetabular morphology remains static with increasing athletic age while cam deformity is progressive and most likely a secondary pathology.

Return to Basketball After Hip Arthroscopy: Minimum 2-Year Follow-up

PURPOSE

To present minimum 2-year patient-reported outcomes (PROs) and return to sport (RTS) data for a population of basketball players after hip arthroscopy.

METHODS

Data were prospectively collected and retrospectively reviewed for all patients who underwent hip arthroscopy between February 2009 and May 2014. Patients with preoperative and minimum 2-year postoperative PROs, visual analog scale score for pain, and satisfaction, who regularly played basketball within 1 year before surgery, and who attempted to RTS met the inclusion criteria. Exclusion criteria were previous ipsilateral hip surgery or conditions such as fracture, dysplasia, or femoral avascular necrosis. Patients were matched 1:1 to a control group composed of those who did not play any sports before surgery, based on the following matching criteria: age ±5 years, sex, and body mass index ±5. Statistical analysis was performed to determine significant differences in PROs. Conversion to total hip arthroplasty (THA) was considered an endpoint.

RESULTS

Thirty-one patients (81.6%) met inclusion criteria with follow-up of 46.8 ± 20.6 months. The mean age was 30.0 ± 12.3, and the mean body mass index was 26.3 ± 6.5. Male patients (64.5%) outnumbered female patients (35.5%). A majority of the players (54.8%) identified themselves as recreational athletes; the remainder competed at the high school, collegiate, amateur, or professional level. There was significant (P < .001) improvement in all PRO measures and visual-analog scale scores from baseline to a minimum 2-year follow-up. At the most recent follow-up, mean patient satisfaction was 8.1 ± 2.1. Twenty-two (78.6%), and 23 patients (82.1%) achieved the patient acceptable symptom state on the modified Harris Hip Score and the Hip Outcomes Score-Sports Specific Subscale. Twenty-one (75.0%) and 17 (60.7%) patients had a minimal clinically important difference on the modified Harris Hip Score and the Hip Outcomes Score-Sports Specific Subscale, respectively. Three patients (9.7%) with an average age of 47.5 (P = .023) converted to THA at a mean of 35.9 ± 7.2 (range 29.66-43.75) months after arthroscopy. At the most recent follow-up, the RTS rate was 83.9%. Subjective ability level was the same or higher in 23 patients (74.2%).

CONCLUSION

Hip arthroscopy in basketball athletes demonstrates a significant increase in PROs, a high RTS rate, and a low risk of complications. Hip arthroscopy may be considered in basketball players <40 years old for whom nonoperative treatment fails and who have a significantly limited level of play. Careful patient selection and counseling should be used when considering hip arthroscopy in basketball players >40 years old because there may be a high rate of conversion to THA.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective comparative study.

Age and sex-related distribution of alpha angles and the prevalence of the cam morphology of the hip in Asians do not differ from those of other ethnicities

PURPOSE

This study was performed to evaluate the effects of age on the alpha angle and the incidence of asymptomatic cam morphology.

METHODS

The radiographs of asymptomatic individuals between ages 8 and 22 were retrospectively collected. A total of 1417 individuals were included and grouped according to age: 8-12 (Group A), 13-18 (Group B), and 19-22 (Group C) years. Radiographic measurements of the alpha angles of the right hip were obtained from anteroposterior (AP) and frog-leg lateral (FL) radiographs. The correlations among alpha angles, the presence of cam morphology, and age were determined.

RESULTS

The mean alpha angles of the three groups were statistically different (p < 0.001, each). The alpha angles on both radiographs were positively correlated with age. Intra-group analysis revealed that this correlation was only evident on the FL images of males in Group B. The presence of a radiographic cam morphology also positively correlated with age (p < 0.001 in both AP and FL images). The cam morphology on AP radiographs was 0 in Group A, 17(3.0%) in Group B, and 21(4.8%) in Group C; that on FL radiographs was 2(0.3%) in Group A, 45(7.9%) in Group B, and 103(23.6%) in Group C. Intra-group analysis revealed that the correlation was only significant in males in Group B.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher alpha angles and the presence of cam morphology were positively correlated with age, particularly in males at or before the time of skeletal maturation. The prevalence of cam morphology did not differ from those in other ethnicities.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

A Sport-specific Analysis of the Epidemiology of Hip Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Athletes From 2009 to 2014

PURPOSE

To describe the injury rates, mechanisms, time loss, and rates of surgery for hip/groin injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletes across 25 collegiate sports during the 2009/10 to 2013/14 academic years.

METHODS

Data from the 2009/10 to 2013/14 academic years were obtained from the NCAA Injury Surveillance Program (ISP). Rates of hip/groin injuries, mechanism of injury, time lost from competition, and surgical treatment were calculated. Differences between sex-comparable sports were quantified using rate ratios and injury proportion ratios. A sport-specific biomechanical classification system, which included cutting, impingement, overhead/asymmetric, endurance, and flexibility sports, was applied for subgroup analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 1,984 hip injuries were reported in 25 NCAA sports, including 9 male and female sports, 3 male-only sports, and 4 female-only sports between the years 2009/10 and 2013/14, resulting in an overall hip injury rate of 53.1/100,000 athletic exposures (AEs). In sex-comparable sports, (basketball, cross-country, lacrosse, ice hockey, indoor track, outdoor track, soccer, swimming, and tennis), men were more commonly affected than women (59.53 vs 42.27 per 100,000 AEs respectively; rate ratio, 1.41; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-1.55). Subgroup analysis demonstrated that the highest rate of hip injuries per 100,000 AEs occurred in impingement sports (96.9). Endurance sports had the highest proportion of injured athletes with time lost >14 days (9.5%). For impingement-type sports, the most common mechanism of injury was no apparent contact (48.2%). The rate of athletes undergoing surgery per 100,000 AEs was highest in impingement-type sports (2.0).

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified that impingement-type sports are most frequently associated with hip injuries. Additionally, this study demonstrates that hip injuries sustained in athletes who played impingement-type sports had a significantly higher rate of surgical intervention than other sport classifications.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, prognostic study.

Demographic and Radiographic Factors Associated With Intra-articular Hip Cartilage Injury: A Cross-sectional Study of 1511 Hip Arthroscopy Procedures

BACKGROUND

Moderate to severe (grade 3-4) hip joint cartilage injury seems to impair function in patients with femoroacetabular impingement syndrome.

PURPOSE

To investigate whether demographic and radiographic factors were associated with moderate to severe hip joint cartilage injury.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

Patients were identified in the Danish Hip Arthroscopy Registry. The outcome variables were acetabular cartilage injury (modified Beck grade 0-2 vs 3-4) and femoral head cartilage injury (International Cartilage Repair Society grade 0-2 vs 3-4). Logistic regressions assessed the association with the following: age (<30 vs 30-50 years); sex; sport activity level (Hip Sports Activity Scale); alpha angle (AA) assessed as normal (AA <55°), cam (55°≤ AA <78°), or severe cam (AA ≥78°); lateral center-edge angle (LCEA) assessed as normal (25°≤ LCEA ≤ 39°), pincer (LCEA >39°), or borderline dysplasia (LCEA <25°); joint space width (JSW) assessed as normal (JSW >4.0 mm), mild reduction (3.1 mm ≤ JSW ≤ 4.0 mm), or severe reduction (2.1 mm ≤ JSW ≤ 3.0 mm).

RESULTS

A total of 1511 patients were included (mean ± SD age: 34.9 ± 9.8 years). Male sex (odds ratio [OR], 4.42), higher age (OR, 1.70), increased AA (cam: OR, 2.23; severe cam: OR, 4.82), and reduced JSW (mild: OR, 2.04; severe: OR, 3.19) were associated (P < .05) with Beck grade 3-4. Higher age (OR, 1.92), increased Hip Sports Activity Scale (OR, 1.13), borderline dysplasia (OR, 3.08), and reduced JSW (mild: OR, 2.63; severe: OR, 3.04) were associated (P < .05) with International Cartilage Repair Society grade 3-4.

CONCLUSION

Several demographic and radiographic factors were associated with moderate to severe hip joint cartilage injury. Most notably, increased cam severity and borderline dysplasia substantially increased the risk of grade 3-4 acetabular and femoral head cartilage injury, respectively, indicating that specific deformity may drive specific cartilage injury patterns in the hip joint.

Current trends in sport and exercise hip conditions: Intra-articular and extra-articular hip pain, with detailed focus on femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) syndrome

Musculoskeletal conditions, such as hip pain are leading causes of pain and disability. Hip pain is the second most common cause of lower limb musculoskeletal pain, and is commonly seen in active individuals. Hip and groin pain may have intra-articular and extra-articular causes. Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) syndrome and the associated pathologies are common intra-articular causes of hip and groin pain in active individuals. There are also a number of extra-articular causes of pain, which include musculotendinous conditions, extra-articular impingements and the clinical entities of groin pain described in the Doha agreement. This chapter will describe these, with a detailed focus on FAI syndrome. Specifically, it addresses: 1. What is and what causes FAI syndrome; 2. How do I diagnose FAI syndrome; and 3. What is the evidence-based approach to managing FAI syndrome?

Relative contribution of epiphyseal tubercle and peripheral cupping to capital femoral epiphysis stability during daily activities

Epiphyseal tubercle and peripheral cupping can influence the development of slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) and Cam morphology. During normal skeletal growth, epiphyseal tubercle shrinks while the peripheral cupping grows. We hypothesized that epiphyseal tubercle act as the primary stabilizer of the head-neck junction at early stages and this role is gradually transferred to epiphyseal cupping as the tubercle shrinks and cupping grows. From a cohort of 80 boys and girls (8-15 years old) with normal hips, CT scans of 5 subjects corresponding to minimum, 25th percentile, median, 75th percentile and maximum relative tubercle and cupping height were used to develop 3D finite element models. In vivo measured hip loads were used to study load sharing between the tubercle and peripheral cupping under combined and uniaxial loads exerted on femoral head during a range of daily activities. Lower epiphyseal tubercle height, larger epiphyseal cupping height and bigger differences in tubercle and cupping heights were strongly associated with increased epiphyseal cupping to epiphyseal tubercle stress ratios (R²  > 0.7). We found lower peripheral cupping stresses relative to the tubercle (cupping to tubercle stress ratio <1) in hips with larger tubercle and smaller cupping. The relative decreases in tubercle size along with increased in peripheral cupping in our models gradually shifted the load distribution to higher stresses in the periphery compared to the epiphyseal tubercle area (cupping to tubercle stress ratio >1). Both tubercle and cupping play a substantial role in sharing the generated stresses across the head-neck junction under all tested loading conditions. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:1571-1579, 2019.

Prevalence of femoroacetabular impingement and effect of training frequency on aetiology in paediatric football players

PURPOSE:

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of asymptomatic radiographic findings of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) in paediatric football players in different age groups and to investigate aetiological factors.

METHODS:

Paediatric male athletes between 10 and 17 years of age from 8 soccer teams were recruited. In addition to an annual control check-up, anteroposterior pelvis and frog-leg radiographs as well as the curriculum vitae of the athletes, their injuries, and real-time complaints were recorded. The alpha angle, lateral centre-edge angle, Tönnis angle, and collodiaphyseal angle were measured and morphological abnormalities were noted.

RESULTS:

There were 214 male football players with a mean age of 13.4 ± 3.2 years included in the study. In the morphological analysis of hips, there was FAI in 30% of the athletes. In the analysis of FAI prevalence in 3 subgroups based on age (Group 1: 10-12 years [ n = 25], Group 2: 13-15 years [ n = 104], Group 3: 16-17 years [ n = 85]), there was 0% FAI in Group 1, 19.1% in Group 2 and 60% in Group 3. In the analysis of aetiological factors, there was no significant difference between the right and left hips of players regarding alpha angles and FAI prevalence. However, the prevalence of FAI was higher in players who had been playing football for 3 years or more and who had been training for 12.5 hours/week or more.

CONCLUSION:

Training for 12.5 hours or more per week in paediatric football players doubled the risk development of FAI morphology.

Age at Onset of Walking in Infancy Is Associated With Hip Shape in Early Old Age

Bones' shapes and structures adapt to the muscle and reaction forces they experience during everyday movements. Onset of independent walking, at approximately 12 months, represents the first postnatal exposure of the lower limbs to the large forces associated with bipedal movements; accordingly, earlier walking is associated with greater bone strength. However, associations between early life loading and joint shape have not been explored. We therefore examined associations between walking age and hip shape at age 60 to 64 years in 1423 individuals (740 women) from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development, a nationally representative British birth cohort. Walking age in months was obtained from maternal interview at age 2 years. Ten modes of variation in hip shape (HM1 to HM10), described by statistical shape models, were ascertained from DXA images. In sex-adjusted analyses, earlier walking age was associated with higher HM1 and HM7 scores; these associations were maintained after further adjustment for height, body composition, and socioeconomic position. Earlier walking was also associated with lower HM2 scores in women only, and lower HM4 scores in men only. Taken together, this suggests that earlier walkers have proportionately larger (HM4) and flatter (HM1, HM4) femoral heads, wider (HM1, HM4, HM7) and flatter (HM1, HM7) femoral necks, a smaller neck-shaft angle (HM1, HM4), anteversion (HM2, HM7), and early development of osteophytes (HM1). These results suggest that age at onset of walking in infancy is associated with variations in hip shape in older age. Early walkers have a larger femoral head and neck and smaller neck-shaft angle; these features are associated with reduced hip fracture risk, but also represent an osteoarthritic-like phenotype. Unlike results of previous studies of walking age and bone mass, associations in this study were not affected by adjustment for lean mass, suggesting that associations may relate directly to skeletal loading in early life when joint shape changes rapidly. © 2018 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Cam morphology in young male football players mostly develops before proximal femoral growth plate closure: a prospective study with 5-yearfollow-up

OBJECTIVES

Cam morphology is not completely understood. The aim of this study was threefold: (1) to investigate if cam morphology development is associated with growth plate status; (2) to examine whether cam morphology continues to develop after growth plate closure; and (3) to qualitatively describe cam morphology development over 5-year follow-up.

METHODS

Academy male football players (n=49) participated in this prospective 5-year follow-up study (baseline 12-19 years old). Anteroposterior and frog-leg lateral views were obtained at baseline (142 hips), 2.5-year (126 hips) and 5-year follow-up (98 hips). Cam morphology on these time points was defined as: (A) visual scores of the anterior head-neck junction, classified as: (1) normal, (2) flattening, and (3) prominence; and (B) alpha angle ≥60°. Proximal femoral growth plates were classified as open or closed. Cam morphology development was defined as every increase in visual score and/or increase in alpha angle from <60° to ≥60°, between two time points. This resulted in 224 measurements for cam morphology development analysis.

RESULTS

Cam morphology development was significantly associated with open growth plates based on visual score (OR: 10.03, 95% CI 3.49 to 28.84, p<0.001) and alpha angle (OR: 2.85, 95% CI 1.18 to 6.88, p=0.020). With both definitions combined, cam developed in 104 of 142 hips during follow-up. Of these 104 hips, cam developed in 86 hips (82.7%) with open growth plate and in 18 hips (17.3%) with a closed growth plate. Cam morphology developed from 12 to 13 years of age until growth plate closure around 18 years.

CONCLUSION

Cam morphology of the hip is more likely to develop with an open growth plate.

Age- and Sex-Specific Morphologic Variations of Capital Femoral Epiphysis Growth in Children and Adolescents Without Hip Disorders

Background:

Understanding the development of the capital femoral epiphysis is essential to identify pathologic variations that may lead to cam morphology.

Purpose/Hypothesis:

The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of the capital femoral epiphysis during childhood and adolescence, with specific morphologic analysis of the peripheral growth and the metaphyseal surface of the growth plate. We hypothesized that age- and sex-dependent morphologic variations of the peripheral growth (cupping) and surface anatomy (epiphyseal tubercle) of the epiphysis would be evident with increasing age.

Study Design:

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

Methods:

Pelvic computed tomography scans of 80 children and adolescents (range, 8-15 years; n = 10 per age group; 50% male), imaged because of suspected appendicitis, were used to reformat the proximal femur. All patients had asymptomatic hips with no signs or history of hip disorder. We measured the peripheral cupping of the epiphysis and the epiphyseal tubercle dimensions from 3-dimensional models. All measurements were normalized to the epiphyseal diameter. The effect of age on these parameters was evaluated by use of linear regression analysis. A 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare these parameters between males and females.

Results:

The mean epiphyseal cupping increased with increasing age (R² = 0.54; P < .001). The mean normalized epiphyseal cupping was consistently higher in the anterior and posterior directions compared with the inferior and superior locations. Male patients aged 10 and 11 years had lower (P = .002) mean epiphyseal cupping compared with female patients of the same age. We observed no difference between male and female participants after 12 years of age (P > .3). The normalized epiphyseal tubercle height (R² = 0.08; P = .009), width (R² = 0.13; P = .001), and length (R² = 0.45; P < .001) decreased with increasing age, with no differences between male and female patients. On average, a 2.6-fold increase was found in epiphyseal cupping from 8 to 15 years of age, whereas normalized tubercle height decreased by 0.4-fold.

Conclusion:

Peripheral cupping of the epiphysis over the metaphysis increases with age, while the relative epiphyseal tubercle dimensions decrease. Females have an earlier onset of rapid increase in the peripheral cupping compared with males; however, no differences in epiphyseal tubercle dimensions were found between male and female patients. These findings may guide future studies investigating the development of cam morphology, which should consider the surface morphologic characteristics of the capital femoral epiphysis, the growth plate, and the differences in morphologic characteristics according to age and sex.

Assessment of cam morphology of the hip with ultra sound imaging by physical therapists is reliable and valid

BACKGROUND

Femoroacetabular impingement syndrome is considered present when a combination of clinical symptoms, signs and morphological features of the hip co-exist. Imaging is increasingly popular in primary health care settings with physical therapists performing ultrasound (US).

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to assess the diagnostic accuracy and inter-rater reliability of ultrasound in determining presence of cam morphology.

DESIGN

A concurrent validity and inter-rater reliability study.

METHODS

The presence of cam morphology of the hip was determined by α angle measures using Kinovea software. A cam was defined present when the α angle >60°. The index test was US and radiographs served as a gold standard.

RESULTS

Correlation between the radiographic α angle and ultrasound measures was r = 0.82 (p < 0.01). Inter-rater reliability was high with an ICC of 0.74 (95% CI 0.61-0.84). The predictive value for presence of cam morphology had a sensitivity of 79% and a specificity of 94%. The positive predictive value was 79% whereas the negative predictive value was 94%. Total accuracy was 90%.

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasound conducted by trained physical therapists is a valid, reliable, specific and sensitive diagnostic tool to assess the presence of cam morphology.

The importance of hip shape in predicting hip osteoarthritis

Purpose of review

This narrative review summarizes the evidence relating hip shape and risk of osteoarthritis at the hip, with a focus on the most recent body of work.

Recent findings

Hip OA is a prevalent and potentially disabling condition with few effective non-surgical treatment options. Risk factors for hip OA appear to differ somewhat from those at other sites. Variations in hip morphology, whether assessed through standard geometric measures or statistical modeling methods, seem to increase hip OA risk and may provide a novel approach to interventions to reduce or prevent OA. Such variations have also led to focused surgical interventions to "correct" abnormal shape, although comparisons with non-surgical management are lacking.

Summary

There remains a lack of understanding regarding the optimal management, whether surgical, non-surgical, or a combination, for FAI syndrome. Even less is known regarding other potential morphologic variations that may contribute to OA risk. Additionally, many individuals who have shape variations that would seem to increase their risk will never develop hip OA. Questions remain regarding key risk factors for hip OA development, which individuals should be targeted for therapies, whether directed at symptoms, function, or prevention, and which therapies should be studied and offered. Trials are underway to help address some of these questions.

The Prevalence of Cam and Pincer Morphology and Its Association With Development of Hip Osteoarthritis

Synopsis Our understanding of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome is slowly improving. The number of studies on all aspects (etiology, prevalence, pathophysiology, natural history, treatment, and preventive measures) of femoroacetabular impingement syndrome has grown exponentially over the past few years. This commentary provides the latest updates on the prevalence of cam and pincer hip morphology and its relationship with development of hip osteoarthritis (OA). Cam and pincer morphology is highly prevalent in the general population and in this paper is presented for different subgroups based on age, sex, ethnicity, and athletic activity. Methodological issues in determining prevalence of abnormal hip morphology are also discussed. Cam morphology has been associated with development of hip OA, but the association between pincer morphology and hip OA is much less clear. Results from reviewed studies, as well as remaining gaps in literature on this topic, are critically discussed and put into perspective for the clinician. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2018;48(4):230-238. doi:10.2519/jospt.2018.7816.

Influence of evolution on cam deformity and its impact on biomechanics of the human hip joint

Anatomy and biomechanics of the human hip joint are a consequence of the evolution of permanent bipedal gait. Habitat and behaviour have an impact on hip morphology and significant differences are present even within the same biological family. The forces acting upon the hip joint are mainly a function of gravitation and strength of the muscles. Acetabular and femoral anatomy ensure an inherently stable hip with a wide range of motion. The femoral head in first human ancestors with upright gait was spherical (coxa rotunda). Coxa rotunda is also seen in close human relatives (great apes) and remains the predominant anatomy of present-day humans. High impact sport during adolescence with open physis however can activate an underlying genetic predisposition for reinforcement of the femoral neck, causing an epiphyseal extension and the formation of an osseous asphericity at the antero-superior femoral neck (cam deformity). The morphology of cam deformity is similar to the aspherical hips of quadrupeds (coxa recta), with the difference that in quadrupeds the asphericity is posterior. It has been postulated that this is due to the fact that humans bear weight on the extended leg, while quadrupeds bear weight at 90-100° flexion. The asphericity alters the biomechanical properties of the joint and as it is forced into the acetabulum leading to secondary cartilage damage. It is considered a risk factor for later development of osteoarthritis of the hip. Clinically this presents as reduced range of motion, which can be an indicator for the structural deformity of the hip. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 9999:XX-XX, 2018.

Origin of Cam Morphology in Femoroacetabular Impingement

Cam morphology of the proximal femur is an abnormal contour of the femoral head-neck junction present in approximately 15% to 25% of the asymptomatic population, predominantly in males. Alpha angle and femoral head-neck offset ratio are 2 objective measurement tools that define cam morphology. Both primary (idiopathic) and secondary cam deformity develops through distinct mechanisms. The cause of primary (idiopathic) cam morphology remains incompletely understood. Mounting evidence suggests that idiopathic cam morphology develops during adolescence through alterations in the capital femoral epiphysis in response to participation in vigorous sporting activity. While the exact cause of epiphyseal extension has not yet been determined, preliminary evidence suggests that epiphyseal extension may reflect a short-term adaptive response to provide stability to the physis at the long-term cost of the development of cam morphology. Commonly recognized causes of secondary cam deformity include frank slipped capital femoral epiphysis, Legg-Calve-Perthes disease, and deformity after fracture of the proximal femur. Recent studies also support subtle slipped capital femoral epiphysis as a unique and silent cause of a small percentage of subjects previously thought to have idiopathic cam deformity.

Prevalence of asymptomatic femoroacetabular impingement in Turkey; cross sectional study

OBJECTIVES

Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) is one of the causes of hip pain in young-adult patients. The purpose of our study is to determine the prevalence of radiological FAI findings in asymptomatic population in Turkey.

METHODS

Trauma patients aged 18-65 years who applied to the emergency service between September 2015 and September 2016 were retrospectively evaluated for this study. After a preliminary study and power analysis, 2152 hips of the 1076 previously asymptomatic patients were evaluated radiologically with pelvis antero-posterior and frog-leg radiographs. On radiographs of these patients; alpha angle, lateral central edge angle (LCEA), Tönnis angle (TA) and collodiaphyseal angle were measured. Alpha angle values higher than 55° were noted as cam type FAI. TA values lower than 0° or LCEA values higher than 39° were noted as pincer type FAI. LCEA values lower than 25° or TA values higher than 10° were noted as acetabular dysplasia.

RESULTS

Mean age of 1076 patients (602 female, 474 male) was 42.1 ± 15.6 years. The assessment showed that 15.9% of the patients had cam type, 10.6% had pincer type, 3.1% had combined type FAI and 9.3% had findings of acetabular dysplasia. The prevalence of asymptomatic FAI is significantly more in males (46%) in comparison to females (17%) in Turkey.

CONCLUSION

Even though FAI is considered to be a pathology associated with hip osteoarthritis; it is very common in asymptomatic population. In this respect, our study showed that prevalence of radiological FAI findings in asymptomatic adult population was 29.6% in Turkey.

Functional Outcomes and Cam Recurrence After Arthroscopic Treatment of Femoroacetabular Impingement in Adolescents

PURPOSE

To compare the functional outcomes after arthroscopic treatment of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) in adolescent patients and non-adolescent patients, and to report on the rate of cam recurrence within 2 years after femoral osteoplasty in a limited sample of the adolescent group.

METHODS

From 2010 to 2014, patients younger than 18 years with symptomatic FAI (alpha angle >50°) who underwent hip arthroscopy with minimum 2-year follow-up or reoperation were identified. A group of non-adolescent patients with identical inclusion criteria, except age of 18 years or older, was also identified for comparison. In addition, a separate group of adolescent patients with 2-year postoperative radiographs was reviewed for cam recurrence. Demographic data, operative data, and radiographic and clinical outcomes (modified Harris Hip Score [mHHS], Hip Outcome Score-Activities of Daily Living [HOS-ADL], Hip Outcome Score-Sport-Specific Subscale [HOS-SSS], and International Hip Outcome Tool 33 [iHOT-33] score) were collected.

RESULTS

We identified 34 adolescent patients (38 hips) with an average age of 16 years (range, 13-17 years). The mean clinical follow-up period was 36.1 ± 11.6 months (range, 24.1-71.7 months) and 29.6 ± 2.4 months (range, 27.9-31.3 months) without and with reoperation, respectively. A control group of 296 non-adolescent patients (306 hips), with a mean age of 31 years (range, 18-59 years), was identified as our non-adolescent group. The mean clinical follow-up period was 34.1 ± 11 months (range, 24.0-77.4 months) and 15.1 ± 9.1 months (range, 3.6-34.6 months) without and with reoperation, respectively. Significant improvement was noted in adolescents in the changes in outcome scores (mHHS, 22.2 [95% confidence interval (CI), 15.4-29.0]; HOS-ADL, 18.6 [95% CI, 11.9-25.2]; HOS-SSS, 33.5 [95% CI, 24.5-42.5]; and iHOT-33 score, 30.5 [95% CI, 21.8-39.2]; P < .001). Similar improvements were observed in non-adolescents (mHHS, 21.0 [95% CI, 19.0-23.0]; HOS-ADL, 16.6 [95% CI, 14.6-18.6]; HOS-SSS, 30.1 [95% CI, 26.6-33.6]; and iHOT-33 score, 34.9 [95% CI, 31.5-38.3]; P < .001). There was no evidence of a difference in follow-up survey scores between groups (P > .203). Revision surgery was required in 2 adolescent hips (5.3% [95% CI, 1.5%-17.3%]) and 19 non-adolescent hips (6.2% [95% CI, 4.0%-9.5%]). Minimum 2-year radiographs were available for review in 24 adolescent patients (30 hips). The alpha angle (mean ± standard deviation) was reduced from 55.4° ± 12.1° preoperatively to 38.7° ± 4.9° at 6 weeks postoperatively (mean difference, -16.4° [95% CI, -19.8° to -12.9°]; P < .001). At 2 years, the alpha angle remained at 39.2° ± 11.2°, which did not differ from 6-week measurements (mean difference, 0.5° [95% CI, -2.9° to 3.9°]; P = .784). There were no cases of cam recurrence (0% [95% CI, 0%-11.4%]).

CONCLUSIONS

Significant improvement in clinical outcomes can be anticipated after arthroscopic treatment of FAI in adolescents. From a limited sample of our adolescent population, the risk of cam recurrence appears low; however, further follow-up is needed to ensure this does not represent a biased sample of the initial population.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective comparative study.

The FADIR test accuracy for screening cam and pincer morphology in youth ice hockey players

OBJECTIVES

Aim of this study was to evaluate the flexion-adduction-internal rotation (FADIR) test accuracy for screening cam and pincer morphology in youth male ice hockey players without diagnosed hip disorders.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Seventy-four ice hockey players with a mean age of 16 years (range: 13-20 years) were assessed unilaterally. The presence of cam and pincer morphology was evaluated using the FADIR test and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (reference standard). Positive FADIR test consisted of groin pain during the maneuver, while positive MRI findings consisted of (1) pure cam, pure pincer or combined morphology and acetabular labral alterations, or (2) pure cam or combined morphology and acetabular labral alterations. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative likelihood ratios, and positive and negative predictive values were calculated.

RESULTS

For pure cam, pure pincer or combined morphology as positive MRI findings, the FADIR test demonstrated a sensitivity of 41%, specificity of 47%, positive likelihood ratio of 0.78, negative likelihood ratio of 1.24, positive predictive value of 19% and negative predictive value of 73%. For pure cam or combined morphology as positive MRI findings, the FADIR test showed a sensitivity of 60%, specificity of 52%, positive likelihood ratio of 1.24, negative likelihood ratio of 0.78, positive predictive value of 16% and negative predictive value of 89%.

CONCLUSIONS

The FADIR test is inadequate for screening cam and pincer morphology in youth ice hockey players without diagnosed hip disorders because of the large number of false positive test outcomes.

Hip Imaging in Athletes: Sports Imaging Series

Hip or groin pain in athletes is common and clinical presentation is often nonspecific. Imaging is a very important diagnostic step in the work-up of athletes with hip pain. This review article provides an overview on hip biomechanics and discusses strategies for hip imaging modalities such as radiography, ultrasonography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (MR arthrography and traction MR arthrography). The authors explain current concepts of femoroacetabular impingement and the problem of high prevalence of cam- and pincer-type morphology in asymptomatic persons. With the main focus on MR imaging, the authors present abnormalities of the hip joint and the surrounding soft tissues that can occur in athletes: intraarticular and extraarticular hip impingement syndromes, labral and cartilage disease, microinstability of the hip, myotendinous injuries, and athletic pubalgia. (©) RSNA, 2016.

Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine Morphology and Outcomes of Hip Arthroscopy in Soccer Athletes: A Comparison to Nonkicking Athletes

PURPOSE

To describe the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) morphology and clinical outcomes following arthroscopic surgical decompression in a group of high-level soccer athletes presenting with symptomatic hip impingement when compared with a control group of nonkicking athletes.

METHODS

From 2009 to 2012, we retrospectively reviewed our prospective hip registry for soccer athletes who underwent arthroscopic treatment for femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) with 2-year follow-up, comparing with a control group of nonkicking athletes. Demographics were collected and radiographic studies (plain radiograph and computed tomographic scan) reviewed for several parameters, including AIIS morphology. Patient-reported outcome scores, including modified Harris Hip Score (mHHS), Hip Outcome Score-Activities of Daily Living (HOS-ADL) and Sport-Specific Subscale (HOS-SSS), and International Hip Outcome Tool-33 (iHOT-33), were administered preoperatively, at 6 months, and at 1, 2, and 3 years postoperatively.

RESULTS

Twenty-six soccer players (34 hips) and 87 nonkicking athletes (115) hips were identified. Demographics, including age (19.2 ± 4.1 vs 20.1 ± 3.8 years) and gender distribution (53.8% vs 51.7% male), were similar between the soccer and nonkicking athletes (P = .288, .849). Eighty-four percent of soccer players demonstrated some abnormality of the AIIS extending to (type II, 52%) or below the anterior acetabular rim (type III, 32%), compared with 52% nonkicking athletes (P < .001). At a mean follow-up of 35 months (range, 24-57 months) there was significant improvement in all outcome scores in both groups from pre- to postoperation (P < .001). There was no evidence of differences in outcome scores between groups (mHSS: 89 ± 14.6 vs 88.2 ± 14.4, P = .804; HOS-ADL: 94.1 ± 9.1 vs 92.2 ± 11.1, P = .431; HOS-SSS: 86 ± 17.1 vs 81.3 ± 24.3, P = .362) with the exception of iHOT-33 (81.7 ± 19 vs 70.3 ± 23.6, P = .027).

CONCLUSIONS

High-level soccer players have a significantly higher rate of subspine impingement compared with nonkicking athletes. There should be a high index of suspicion when treating soccer players for FAI, where appropriate recognition and treatment of subspine impingement can yield excellent clinical results.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective case-control study.

Ethnic Differences in Bony Hip Morphology in a Cohort of 445 Professional Male Soccer Players

BACKGROUND

Participation in high-impact athletic activities has recently been associated with a higher prevalence of cam deformity. Bony hip morphology has also emerged as an important factor in the development of hip osteoarthritis. However, it is unknown whether bony morphology differs between ethnicities in athletes participating in high-impact sports.

PURPOSE

To investigate whether the prevalence of specific bony hip morphological abnormalities differed between professional male soccer players of diverse ethnic backgrounds.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

Professional male soccer players from an entire league attending preparticipation screening were invited to participate in this study. Ethnicity was registered, and standardized radiographs of anteroposterior pelvic and Dunn views were obtained. Cam and pincer deformity, and acetabular dysplasia were quantified using the alpha angle, triangular index, and lateral center-edge angle (LCEA). Regression analyses with generalized estimating equations were used to determine prevalence differences in bony hip morphology.

RESULTS

A total of 445 male soccer players (890 hips; mean age ± SD, 25 ± 4.9 years) participated in the study, representing the following ethnic groups: Arabic (59%), black (24%), Persian (7%), white (6%), East Asian (2%), and other (2%). The prevalence of cam deformity (alpha angle >60°) ranged from 57.5% to 71.7% across 4 of the groups, but East Asians had a significantly lower prevalence (18.8%; P ≤ .032). A large cam deformity (alpha angle >78°) was more prevalent in white (33.3%) compared with black soccer players (17.8%; P = .041) and was absent in East Asian players. Pincer deformity (LCEA >40°) was uncommon (3%) in all ethnicities. The prevalence of acetabular dysplasia (LCEA <20°) ranged from 8.0% to 16.7%, apart from the white group, in which prevalence was only 1.9% (P = .03).

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of a cam deformity and acetabular dysplasia differed between ethnicities in this cohort of professional male soccer players. These findings suggest that there may be ethnic differences in both acetabular morphology and femoral bony response to athletic load.

Decreasing pelvic incidence is associated with greater risk of cam morphology

OBJECTIVES

The spinopelvic relationship (including pelvic incidence) has been shown to influence pelvic orientation, but its potential association with femoroacetabular impingement has not been thoroughly explored. The purpose of this study was to prove the hypothesis that decreasing pelvic incidence is associated with increased risk of cam morphology.

METHODS

Two matching cohorts were created from a collection of cadaveric specimens with known pelvic incidences: 50 subjects with the highest pelvic incidence (all subjects > 60°) and 50 subjects with the lowest pelvic incidence (all subjects < 35°). Femoral version, acetabular version, and alpha angles were directly measured from each specimen bilaterally. Cam morphology was defined as alpha angle > 55°. Differences between the two cohorts were analysed with a Student's t-test and the difference in incidence of cam morphology was assessed using a chi-squared test. The significance level for all tests was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

Cam morphology was identified in 47/100 (47%) femurs in the cohort with pelvic incidence < 35° and in only 25/100 (25%) femurs in the cohort with pelvic incidence > 60° (p = 0.002). The mean alpha angle was also greater in the cohort with pelvic incidence < 35° (mean 53.7°, sd 10.7° versus mean 49.7°, sd 10.6°; p = 0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

Decreased pelvic incidence is associated with development of cam morphology. We propose a novel theory wherein subjects with decreased pelvic incidence compensate during gait (to maintain optimal sagittal balance) through anterior pelvic tilt, creating artificial anterior acetabular overcoverage and recurrent impingement that increases risk for cam morphology.Cite this article: W. Z. Morris, C. A. Fowers, R. T. Yuh, J. J. Gebhart, M. J. Salata, R. W. Liu. Decreasing pelvic incidence is associated with greater risk of cam morphology. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:387-392. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.59.BJR-2016-0028.R1.

Hip morphology in elite golfers: asymmetry between lead and trail hips

Aim

During a golf swing, the lead hip (left hip in a right-handed player) rotates rapidly from external to internal rotation, while the opposite occurs in the trail hip. This study assessed the morphology and pathology of golfers’ hips comparing lead and trail hips.

Methods

A cohort of elite golfers were invited to undergo MRI of their hips. Hip morphology was evaluated by measuring acetabular depth (pincer shape=negative measure), femoral neck antetorsion (retrotorsion=negative measure) and α angles (cam morphology defined as α angle >55° anteriorly) around the axis of the femoral neck. Consultant musculoskeletal radiologists determined the presence of intra-articular pathology.

Results

55 players (mean age 28 years, 52 left hip lead) underwent MRI. No player had pincer morphology, 2 (3.6%) had femoral retrotorsion and 9 (16%) had cam morphology. 7 trail hips and 2 lead hips had cam morphology (p=0.026). Lead hip femoral neck antetorsion was 16.7° compared with 13.0° in the trail hip (p<0.001). The α angles around the femoral neck were significantly lower in the lead compared with trail hips (p<0.001), with the greatest difference noted in the anterosuperior portion of the head neck junction; 53° vs 58° (p<0.001) and 43° vs 47° (p<0.001). 37% of trail and 16% of lead hips (p=0.038) had labral tears.

Conclusions

Golfers’ lead and trail hips have different morphology. This is the first time side-to-side asymmetry of cam prevalence has been reported. The trail hip exhibited a higher prevalence of labral tears.