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Lovell B, McCarty K, Penfold P, Wetherell MA. Clinically elevated depression scores do not produce negative attentional biases in caregivers of autistic children. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1192669. [PMID: 37743984 PMCID: PMC10512861 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1192669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Depression scores in caregivers of autistic children often fall in the clinical range. The attention of clinically depressed individuals tends to be biased toward negatively toned information. Whether caring for an autistic child might also be characterized by a negative attentional bias was explored here. Methods A sample of N = 98 (57 caregivers and 41 controls) completed questionnaires assessing depressive symptoms. Orienting attention to (i.e., vigilance), and shifting attention away from (i.e., disengagement), negative information was assessed via an online version of the emotional face dot probe task. Results Mean depression scores in caregivers, falling in the borderline clinical range, were significantly higher compared with controls. Groups, however, were indistinguishable with respect to vigilance and disengagement, and these attentional indices were unrelated to depression scores. Conclusion Caring for an autistic child, while associated with borderline clinical depression scores, was not characterized by a negative attentional bias. Findings are discussed in the context of methodological shortcomings and recommendations for future research.
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Li S, Li X. The Relationship Between Attentional Bias, Anxiety Sensitivity, and Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: Evidence From the COVID-19 Pandemic in China. Front Public Health 2022; 10:832819. [PMID: 35211448 PMCID: PMC8861176 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.832819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The COVID-19 pandemic has led to observed increases in reported mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety symptoms. There is evidence attentional bias is associated with depression and anxiety, and it has been further suggested that anxiety sensitivity has a role in both the development and maintenance of depression and anxiety symptoms. Understanding these relationships may help inform preventative interventions for those at risk of mental health concerns. The present study explores the role of anxiety sensitivity, specifically physical and cognitive concerns, as a potential mediator of the relationship between attentional bias with depression and anxiety symptoms. Method Participants (n = 460) were recruited from the general population in China, and completed an online survey between February and March, 2020 which included the Attention to Positive and Negative Information Scale (APNI), Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 (ASI-3) and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). After exploring the correlations between the measures, mediation analysis was performed to explore the role of anxiety sensitivity (physical and cognitive subscales) in the relationship between attentional bias and depression and anxiety (as measured by the DASS-21). Results The results indicated that negative attention bias was significantly positively correlated with physical and cognitive concerns, physical and cognitive concerns were significantly positively correlated with depression and anxiety, and negative attention bias was significantly positively correlated with depression and anxiety (all ps < 0.001). Physical and cognitive anxiety sensitivity mediated the relationship between negative attention bias and both anxiety and depression symptoms. Conclusion Negative bias was associated with levels of anxiety and depression, and physical and cognitive anxiety sensitivity mediated associations between negative bias and anxiety and depression symptoms. The study provides theoretical support for intervention and guidance on individual mental health during the pandemic, and helps individuals increase their concern to negative emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyi Li
- Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Social Science Laboratory of Students' Mental Development and Learning, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
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3
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Vanicek T, Reed MB, Seiger R, Godbersen GM, Klöbl M, Unterholzner J, Spurny-Dworak B, Gryglewski G, Handschuh P, Schmidt C, Kraus C, Stimpfl T, Rupprecht R, Kasper S, Lanzenberger R. Increased left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex density following escitalopram intake during relearning: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial in healthy humans. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2022; 12:20451253221132085. [PMID: 36420117 PMCID: PMC9677158 DOI: 10.1177/20451253221132085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Serotonergic agents affect brain plasticity and reverse stress-induced dendritic atrophy in key fronto-limbic brain areas associated with learning and memory. Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate effects of the antidepressant escitalopram on gray matter during relearning in healthy individuals to inform a model for depression and the neurobiological processes of recovery. Design Randomized double blind placebo control, monocenter study. Methods In all, 76 (44 females) healthy individuals performed daily an associative learning task with emotional or non-emotional content over a 3-week period. This was followed by a 3-week relearning period (randomly shuffled association within the content group) with concurrent daily selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (i.e., 10 mg escitalopram) or placebo intake. Results Via voxel-based morphometry and only in individuals that developed sufficient escitalopram blood levels over the 21-day relearing period, an increased density of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex was found. When investigating whether there was an interaction between relearning and drug intervention for all participants, regardless of escitalopram levels, no changes in gray matter were detected with either surfaced-based or voxel-based morphometry analyses. Conclusion The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex affects executive function and emotional processing, and is a critical mediator of symptoms and treatment outcomes of depression. In line, the findings suggest that escitalopram facilitates neuroplastic processes in this region if blood levels are sufficient. Contrary to our hypothesis, an effect of escitalopram on brain structure that is dependent of relearning content was not detected. However, this may have been a consequence of the intensity and duration of the interventions. Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02753738; Trial Name: Enhancement of learning associated neural plasticity by Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors; URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02753738.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Vanicek
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Murray B Reed
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - René Seiger
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Godber M Godbersen
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manfred Klöbl
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jakob Unterholzner
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benjamin Spurny-Dworak
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gregor Gryglewski
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Patricia Handschuh
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Clemens Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Kraus
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Stimpfl
- Clinical Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rainer Rupprecht
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Siegfried Kasper
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rupert Lanzenberger
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringerstr. 18-20, Vienna 1090, Austria
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4
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Kuehl LK, Deuter CE, Nowacki J, Ueberrueck L, Wingenfeld K, Otte C. Attentional bias in individuals with depression and adverse childhood experiences: influence of the noradrenergic system? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:3519-3531. [PMID: 34605959 PMCID: PMC8629860 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-05969-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe mental disorder with affective, cognitive, and somatic symptoms. Mood congruent cognitive biases, including a negative attentional bias, are important for development, maintenance, and recurrence of depressive symptoms. MDD is associated with maladaptive changes in the biological stress systems such as dysregulations of central noradrenergic alpha2-receptors in the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system, which can affect cognitive processes including attention. Patients with adverse childhood experiences (ACE), representing severe stress experiences in early life, might be particularly affected. OBJECTIVES With an experimental design, we aimed to gain further knowledge about the role of noradrenergic activity for attentional bias in MDD patients with and without ACE. METHODS We tested the effect of increased noradrenergic activity induced by the alpha2-receptor blocker yohimbine on attentional bias in a placebo-controlled repeated measures design. Four groups were included as follows: MDD patients with and without ACE, and healthy participants with and without ACE (total N = 128, all without antidepressant medication). RESULTS A significant effect of MDD on attentional bias scores of sad face pictures (p = .037) indicated a facilitated attentional processing of sad face pictures in MDD patients (compared to non-MDD individuals). However, we found no such effect of ACE. For attentional bias of happy face pictures, we found no significant effects of MDD and ACE. Even though a higher increase of blood pressure and salivary alpha-amylase following yohimbine compared to placebo indicated successful noradrenergic stimulation, we found no significant effects of yohimbine on attentional bias of happy or sad face pictures. CONCLUSIONS Our results are consistent with the hypothesis of a negative attentional bias in MDD patients. However, as we found no effect of ACE or yohimbine, further research is needed to understand the mechanisms by which ACE increases the risk of MDD and to understand the biological basis of the MDD-related negative attentional bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linn K Kuehl
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, MSB Medical School Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Christian E Deuter
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Nowacki
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lisa Ueberrueck
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Wingenfeld
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Otte
- Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Berlin, Germany
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Ao X, Mo L, Wei Z, Yu W, Zhou F, Zhang D. Negative Bias During Early Attentional Engagement in Major Depressive Disorder as Examined Using a Two-Stage Model: High Sensitivity to Sad but Bluntness to Happy Cues. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:593010. [PMID: 33328939 PMCID: PMC7717997 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.593010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Negative attentional bias has been well established in depression. However, there is very limited knowledge about whether this depression-relevant negative bias exits during initial attentional allocation, as compared with the converging evidence for the negative bias during sustained attention engagement. This study used both behavioral and electrophysiological measures to examine the initial attention engagement in depressed patients influenced by mood-congruent and mood-incongruent emotions. The dot-probe task was performed with a 100-ms exposure time of the emotional cues (emotional and neutral face pairs). The behavioral results showed that the patients responded faster following valid compared with invalid sad facial cues. Electrophysiological indexes in the frame of the two-stage model of attentional modulation by emotions provided cognitive mechanisms in distinct attention engagement stages: (1) the patients exhibited reduced P1 amplitudes following validly than invalidly happy cues than did the healthy controls, indicating a positive attenuation at an early stage of automatic attention orientation; and (2) the patients exhibited enhanced whereas the controls showed reduced P3 amplitudes following validly than invalidly sad cues, suggesting a mood-congruent negative potentiation in depression at the later stage of top-down voluntary control of attention. Depressed patients show a negative bias in early attentional allocation, reflected by preferred engagement with mood-congruent and diminished engagement with positive emotional cues/stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Ao
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China.,School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Licheng Mo
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Zhaoguo Wei
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Shenzhen Kangning Hospital, Shenzhen, China
| | - Wenwen Yu
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Fang Zhou
- School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dandan Zhang
- Institute of Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China.,School of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.,Shenzhen Institute of Neuroscience, Shenzhen, China.,Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen, China
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6
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Zhang L, Yu F, Hu Q, Qiao Y, Xuan R, Ji G, Zhu C, Cai C, Wang K. Effects of SSRI Antidepressants on Attentional Bias toward Emotional Scenes in First-Episode Depressive Patients: Evidence from an Eye-Tracking Study. Psychiatry Investig 2020; 17:871-879. [PMID: 32933239 PMCID: PMC7538251 DOI: 10.30773/pi.2019.0345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Attentional biases toward emotional scenes may represent vulnerability and maintenance factors in depression. Antidepressant therapy may improve cognitive function and reduce depression, and is considered as the mechanism of action of antidepressants. Therefore, we conducted an eye-tracking test to examine whether selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants can reduce negative attentional biases and elicit clinical responses in depression. METHODS Twenty first-episode depressive patients freely viewed three types of pictures that depicted different emotional scenes (i.e., positive-control, neutral-control, and negative-control) for 4,000 ms while their eye movements were monitored. The attentional bias to different emotional scenes was assessed before and after eight weeks of SSRI treatment using the eye-tracking method. The control group included a group of healthy individuals. RESULTS The results revealed that first-episode depressive patients oriented their gaze more frequently to negative images and less to happy images, compared to controls. Importantly, the attentional bias in depressive patients was regulated after eight weeks of SSRI treatment. Patients showed an increased tendency to fixate on positive images and a decreased tendency to focus on negative images. CONCLUSION This suggests that SSRI antidepressants decrease vulnerability to negative images, while having an effect on attention in respect to positive images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Fengqiong Yu
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Qian Hu
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Yuxi Qiao
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Rongrong Xuan
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Gongjun Ji
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | - Chunyan Zhu
- Department of Medical Psychology, Chaohu Clinical Medical College, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
| | | | - Kai Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.,Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cognition and Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Hefei, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Mental Health, Hefei, China
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Weightman MJ, Knight MJ, Baune BT. A systematic review of the impact of social cognitive deficits on psychosocial functioning in major depressive disorder and opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Psychiatry Res 2019; 274:195-212. [PMID: 30807971 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 01/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Social cognition is the ability to identify, perceive and interpret socially relevant information from the external world. It is an important adaptive trait, but is frequently affected in major depressive disorder by a mood-congruent interpretive bias. The present review examined the existing body of literature to determine (i) the impact social cognitive deficits in depression have on psychosocial functioning; and (ii) the utility of psychotropic, psychological and procedural interventions employed to target these deficits. A total of 107 studies met inclusion criteria for review. Social cognitive performance was found to adversely impact depressed patients' psychosocial functioning across the key domains of general cognitive functioning and quality of life. Secondly, many current therapies were found to have a normalising effect on the social cognitive abilities of subjects with major depressive disorder, both at a neural and functional level. In particular, certain anti-depressant medications corrected facial affect recognition deficits, while several psychotherapeutic approaches improved impairments in theory of mind and negative interpretive bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael James Weightman
- Discipline of Psychiatry, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
| | - Matthew James Knight
- Discipline of Psychiatry, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia.
| | - Bernhard Theodor Baune
- Discipline of Psychiatry, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5005, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia; Department of Psychiatry, University of Münster, Münster, Germany.
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8
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Trapp W, Kalzendorf C, Baum C, Hajak G, Lautenbacher S. Attentional biases in patients suffering from unipolar depression: results of a dot probe task investigation. Psychiatry Res 2018; 261:325-331. [PMID: 29331850 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive models of depression emphasize the relevance of cognitive biases for development, onset and maintenance of major depressive disorder (MDD). Attentional biases consisting of increased attention to negative, mood congruent stimuli and reduced attention to positive, mood-incongruent stimuli are postulated but have rarely been tested for early attentional processing. Furthermore, the role of concurrent depressive mood as a moderating factor has not been studied to date. Participants comprised 30 patients suffering from MDD and 30 healthy control subjects. All participants performed a dot-probe task with pictorial stimuli displaying affective facial expressions, presented either for 100ms or for 500ms. Attentional biases towards faces displaying joy in both MDD patients and control subjects and towards faces displaying pain in MDD subjects were found at presentation times of 100ms. In the MDD sample, the bias indices at 100ms were correlated with concurrent depressive mood. In patients with pronounced depressive mood, significant biases towards happy and angry faces were observed that exceed the biases obtained in control subjects and patients with less depressive mood. The results provide first evidence that MDD patients with pronounced depressive mood show an increased early attentional engagement towards emotional salient stimuli, independent from valence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Trapp
- Department of Psychiatry, Sozialstiftung Bamberg, St-.Getreu-Straße 18, 96049 Bamberg, Germany; Department of Physiological Psychology, Otto-Friedrich University Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96045 Bamberg, Germany.
| | - Christoph Kalzendorf
- Department of Physiological Psychology, Otto-Friedrich University Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96045 Bamberg, Germany
| | - Corinna Baum
- Department of Physiological Psychology, Otto-Friedrich University Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96045 Bamberg, Germany
| | - Göran Hajak
- Department of Psychiatry, Sozialstiftung Bamberg, St-.Getreu-Straße 18, 96049 Bamberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Lautenbacher
- Department of Physiological Psychology, Otto-Friedrich University Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96045 Bamberg, Germany
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