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Toh WL, Lam S, Mangano M, Rossell SL. Multidimensional Perfectionism and Facial Symmetry, Attractiveness and Approachability: Comparing Those With High Versus Low Dysmorphic Concerns. Psychol Rep 2023:332941231205274. [PMID: 37788829 DOI: 10.1177/00332941231205274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Concerns pertaining to one's physical appearance or specific body parts is not uncommon in the community. Whether such dissatisfaction is related to superior (or inferior) face perception abilities, or interacts with related constructs, such as perfectionism, is unknown. The current study aimed to investigate whether multidimensional perfectionism (e.g. involving concern over mistakes or doubts over actions) and facial ratings differed in those with high versus low dysmorphic concerns (i.e. excessive preoccupation about perceived physical flaws). Respondents (N = 343) from the community took part in an online study, comprising questionnaires assessing dysmorphic concerns and perfectionism. They also completed a face perception task involving symmetry, attractiveness and approachability ratings for a series of faces, some of which had been digitally manipulated to yield differing degrees of symmetry. Respondents were divided into those with high (n = 147) versus low (n = 196) dysmorphic concerns. Group comparisons using analyses of variance were conducted. Those with high dysmorphic concerns exhibited significantly elevated overall perfectionism (as well as on facets involving concern over mistakes, personal standards, parental perceptions and doubts over actions). No significant group differences were uncovered for the face perception task, involving ratings of symmetry, attractiveness and approachability. Perfectionism differences existed in a non-clinical sample with high dysmorphic concerns, though further work is needed to elucidate consistent patterns regarding perfectionism facets. More research examining face perception deficits on the clinical end of the body image spectrum, such as in those with body dysmorphic disorder, as well as utilising alternate task versions involving self-referential stimuli, are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Lin Toh
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychology, Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sandy Lam
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Madeleine Mangano
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Susan L Rossell
- Centre for Mental Health and Brain Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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2
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Dingemans AE, Volkmer SA, Mulkens S, Vuijk R, van Rood YR. The obsessive-compulsive spectrum: A network analysis. Psychiatry Res 2022; 308:114351. [PMID: 34979379 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have shown that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), eating disorders (ED), autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) share obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms and often co-occur, which could be seen as indicative of a common etiological basis. In addition, they also appear to have similarities in executive functioning. The present study investigated disorder-specific symptoms and executive functioning as a possible joint factor in individuals with OCD (n=53), BDD (n=95), ED (n=171) and ASD (n=73), and in healthy controls (n=110). The participants completed online questionnaires measuring OCD, ED, ASD and BDD related symptoms as well as executive functioning. The clinical groups were first compared to the healthy controls. Subsequently, a network analysis was performed only with the OC-groups. This network approach assumes that psychopathological disorders are the result of causal symptom interactions. As expected, the healthy controls reported less severe symptoms compared to the OC patient groups. The network analysis suggested that the executive functioning skill set shifting/attention switching and the ASD symptoms, social and communication skills were the most central nodes in the model. Difficulty with cognitive flexibility and social factors are central in OC-spectrum disorders and may be perpetuating factors and thus a relevant focus of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sandra Mulkens
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, and Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Yanda R van Rood
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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3
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Body Dysmorphic Symptoms in Youth with Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Prevalence, Clinical Correlates, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Outcome. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2022:10.1007/s10578-021-01298-0. [PMID: 35013848 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-021-01298-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The aims of the study were to estimate the prevalence of body dysmorphic symptoms in a sample of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder, possible clinical correlates and whether BDD symptoms predict poorer treatment outcomes after cognitive behavioral therapy. The study included 269 children and adolescents with OCD, aged 7-17 years, from Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, who were treated with 14 weekly sessions of manualized, exposure-based CBT. Twenty-one patients (7.8%) had BDD symptoms. BDD symptoms were associated with older age (p = 0.003) and a higher prevalence of comorbid anxiety disorders (p = 0.025). In addition, patients with BDD symptoms endorsed a greater number of OCD symptoms than did those without BDD symptoms. Having symptoms of BDD did not affect the CBT outcome on OCD. The results of the study suggest that CBT for OCD is equally effective for those with and without comorbid BDD symptoms.
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Toh WL, Mangano M, Lam S, Rossell SL. The contribution of multidimensional perfectionism and aesthetic sensitivity to the prediction of dysmorphic and symmetry concerns in a community sample. CURRENT RESEARCH IN BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crbeha.2022.100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022] Open
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Phillips KA, Kelly MM. Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Clinical Overview and Relationship to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. FOCUS (AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC PUBLISHING) 2021; 19:413-419. [PMID: 35747292 PMCID: PMC9063569 DOI: 10.1176/appi.focus.20210012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), characterized by a distressing or impairing preoccupation with nonexistent or slight defects in appearance, is associated with markedly poor quality of life and high rates of suicidality. Onset of BDD is usually in childhood or adolescence and, unless appropriately treated, tends to be chronic. The first-line pharmacologic approach for both delusional and non-delusional BDD is serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SRIs), often at high doses. SRI augmentation and switching strategies can be effective. The first-line psychotherapy is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) tailored to BDD's unique clinical features. Cosmetic treatment (such as surgery or dermatologic treatment), although received by a majority of patients with BDD, is not recommended. BDD has many similarities to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and appears closely related to OCD but also has some important differences. This article, which updates a 2015 article on BDD that we published in this journal, provides a clinically focused overview of BDD and its relationship to OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine A Phillips
- New York-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York (Phillips); Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York (Phillips); U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs VA Bedford Healthcare System, Bedford, Massachusetts (Kelly); Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester (Kelly)
| | - Megan M Kelly
- New York-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York (Phillips); Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York (Phillips); U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs VA Bedford Healthcare System, Bedford, Massachusetts (Kelly); Department of Psychiatry, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester (Kelly)
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Oakes A, Collison J, Milne‐home J. Repetitive, Safe, and Automatic: The Experience of Appearance‐Related Behaviours in Body Dysmorphic Disorder. AUSTRALIAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/ap.12247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alissa Oakes
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University,
| | - James Collison
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University,
| | - Jo Milne‐home
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University,
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Summers BJ, Wilver NL, Garratt GH, Cougle JR. A Multimethod Analysis of Incompleteness and Visual "Not Just Right" Experiences in Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Behav Ther 2020; 51:764-773. [PMID: 32800304 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2019.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) often report engaging in repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing feelings of imperfection anchored to their appearance. "Not just right" experiences (NJREs) and incompleteness (INC) are constructs related to perfectionism that have traditionally been studied in obsessive-compulsive disorder, though recent research has also linked these phenomena to BDD. We sought to replicate and extend this research via two studies. Study 1 examined BDD symptoms, INC, as well as harm avoidance (HA) in an unselected sample (N = 179); moderate associations were observed between symptoms and both INC and HA. Participants also completed a novel visual NJRE task in which they were shown appearance-related and non-appearance-related images meant to evoke an NJRE response (i.e., discomfort and urge to "fix" stimuli). BDD symptoms predicted reactivity to appearance-related NJRE stimuli above negative affect. Study 2 compared INC, HA, and task reactivity in a BDD sample (N = 50) to nonpsychiatric controls (N = 44). The BDD group evidenced greater INC, HA, and reactivity to both appearance and nonappearance NJRE stimuli, relative to controls; however, group differences did not remain after controlling for age and negative affect. These studies broadly corroborate previous research highlighting NJREs and INC as potential vulnerability factors relevant to BDD, though these phenomena may not be specific to BDD symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berta J Summers
- Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School; Florida State University.
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Eskander N, Limbana T, Khan F. Psychiatric Comorbidities and the Risk of Suicide in Obsessive-Compulsive and Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Cureus 2020; 12:e9805. [PMID: 32953317 PMCID: PMC7494407 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.9805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic psychiatric disorder that is characterized by obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are uncontrollable distressful thoughts. Compulsions are recurrent behaviors or thoughts performed in an attempt to decrease the anxiety of the obsessions. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is a mental disorder characterized by a distressful preoccupation with a perceived defect in appearance. The perceived flaw in appearance is minimal or unnoticed by others. BDD was considered an anxiety disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition (DSM-IV). In the DSM-V, it was added to the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders category. The objective of this literature review was to explore the psychiatric comorbidities and the risk of suicide associated with OCD and BDD. Our study results showed OCD and BDD share common genetic and environmental risk factors, clinical features, and sociodemographic profiles. Both OCD and BDD are related disorders that commonly coexist. The suicide risk in OCD is increased as the intensity of the obsessions, trait perfectionism, and alexithymia increases. The suicide risk in BDD is increased by the presence of other disorders such as substance use disorder, major depressive disorder, eating and personality disorders. People with comorbid OCD-BDD have high morbidity, a decrease in insight and poor psychosocial functions. They have higher rates of anxiety, schizotypal features, and suicidal ideation compared to those with BDD or OCD alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noha Eskander
- Psychiatry, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Therese Limbana
- Psychiatry, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Farah Khan
- Psychiatry, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
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Summers BJ, Matheny NL, Cougle JR. 'Not just right' experiences and incompleteness in body dysmorphic disorder. Psychiatry Res 2017; 247:200-207. [PMID: 27918970 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2016.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The current studies examined the role of 'not just right' experiences (NJREs) and incompleteness (INC) in body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). In Study 1, a clinical BDD sample endorsed more severe NJREs than healthy controls, when controlling co-occurring symptoms of depression and anxiety. In Study 2, INC predicted reactivity to an in vivo task designed to evoke BDD-related concerns in an unselected sample. Study 3 demonstrated a positive relationship between INC and BDD symptom severity in a community sample. Study 4 examined in vivo sensory NJRE tasks and INC in a sample high and low in BDD symptoms. The high symptom group reported greater INC and reactivity to a visual NJRE task than their low symptom counterparts, when controlling for co-occurring symptoms of depression, anxiety, and OC symptoms. No group differences were observed for tasks assessing auditory and tactile NJREs. These studies demonstrate a unique relationship between INC/NJREs and BDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berta J Summers
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Natalie L Matheny
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Jesse R Cougle
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA.
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López-Solà C, Fontenelle LF, Verhulst B, Neale MC, Menchón JM, Alonso P, Harrison BJ. DISTINCT ETIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE SYMPTOM DIMENSIONS: A MULTIVARIATE TWIN STUDY. Depress Anxiety 2016; 33:179-91. [PMID: 26630089 PMCID: PMC4775288 DOI: 10.1002/da.22455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 10/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by five major dimensions, including contamination/washing, harm/checking, symmetry/ordering, hoarding, and forbidden thoughts. How these dimensions may relate etiologically to the symptoms of other obsessive-compulsive related disorders (OCRDs) and anxiety disorders (ADs) is not well known. The aim of this study was to examine the genetic and environmental overlap between each major obsessive-compulsive dimension with the symptoms of other OCRDs and ADs. METHODS Two thousand four hundred ninety-five twins of both sexes, aged between 18 and 45 years, were recruited from the Australian Twin Registry. Measures used scores on four dimensions (obsessing (forbidden thoughts), washing, checking, and ordering) of the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised, Dysmorphic Concerns Questionnaire, Hoarding Rating Scale, Anxiety Sensitivity Index, Social Phobia Inventory, and Stress subscale of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale. Multivariate twin modeling methods using continuous and categorized variables were performed, also controlling for age and gender. RESULTS Our findings suggested that forbidden thoughts and washing demonstrated the strongest genetic overlap with other AD symptoms, while ordering was genetically related to OCRD symptoms. Common genetic influences on checking symptoms were best estimated when modeling OCRDs together with AD symptoms. Common environmental factors of ordering and checking were shared with AD symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Important shared genetic and environmental risk factors exist between OCD, OCRDs, and ADs, but which vary alongside the expression of its major dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara López-Solà
- Department of Psychiatry, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute—IDIBELL, Bellvitge University Hospital, CIBERSAM (G17), Barcelona, Spain,Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Leonardo F. Fontenelle
- Programa de Transtornos Obsessivo-Compulsivos e de Ansiedade, Instituto de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil,lnstituto D’Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil,Instituto de Saúde da Comunidade, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Brad Verhulst
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics (VIPBG), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | - Michael C. Neale
- Virginia Institute for Psychiatric and Behavioral Genetics (VIPBG), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | - José M. Menchón
- Department of Psychiatry, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute—IDIBELL, Bellvitge University Hospital, CIBERSAM (G17), Barcelona, Spain,Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pino Alonso
- Department of Psychiatry, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute—IDIBELL, Bellvitge University Hospital, CIBERSAM (G17), Barcelona, Spain,Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ben J. Harrison
- Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia,Correspondence: Ben J. Harrison, Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, The University of Melbourne, Level 3, 161 Barry Street, Carlton, 3053 Melbourne, Australia.
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11
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Lochner C, McGregor N, Hemmings S, Harvey BH, Breet E, Swanevelder S, Stein DJ. Symmetry symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder: clinical and genetic correlates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 38:17-23. [PMID: 26291046 PMCID: PMC7115475 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2014-1619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Objective: In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), symmetry-related symptoms may be important. Although clinical correlates of symmetry-related symptoms have been identified in OCD, few data exist on genetic associations. Animal studies indicate involvement of dopamine in symmetry-related behavior, suggesting this may be relevant to analogous symptoms in OCD. Alterations in dopamine may also reflect environmental influences. However, the association of symmetry-related symptomatology, early adversity, and polymorphisms in dopaminergic genes has not been investigated in OCD. Methods: Clinical information and polymorphisms in key dopaminergic genes were compared between OCD patients with primary symmetry symptoms and those without. Results: OCD patients with primary symmetry symptoms comprised 46.6% (n=210) of the sample (n=451), and were older (p < 0.01), had longer illness duration (p < 0.01), higher OCD severity scores (p = 0.01), and greater comorbidity (p < 0.01) than those without. In Caucasians (n=343), genotype frequency differed significantly between groups for ANKK1 rs1800497, with more OCD patients with symmetry symptoms being homozygous for the A2 (CC) genotype (χ2 = 7.296; p = 0.026). Conclusion: Symmetry symptoms have some distinct clinical features and may represent a marker of severity in OCD. However, clinical associations, in combination with the association found with the ANKK1 rs1800497 A2 variant, suggest that primary symmetry symptoms may represent a distinctive clinical and psychobiological profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Lochner
- MRC Unit on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Nathaniel McGregor
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Sian Hemmings
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Brian H Harvey
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Elsie Breet
- MRC Unit on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | | | - Dan J Stein
- MRC Unit on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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Frías Á, Palma C, Farriols N, González L. Comorbidity between obsessive-compulsive disorder and body dysmorphic disorder: prevalence, explanatory theories, and clinical characterization. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015; 11:2233-44. [PMID: 26345330 PMCID: PMC4556261 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s67636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND With the advent of the fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) has been subsumed into the obsessive-compulsive disorders and related disorders (OCDRD) category. OBJECTIVE We aimed to determine the empirical evidence regarding the potential relationship between BDD and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) based on the prevalence data, etiopathogenic pathways, and clinical characterization of patients with both disorders. METHOD A comprehensive search of databases (PubMed and PsycINFO) was performed. Published manuscripts between 1985 and May 2015 were identified. Overall, 53 studies fulfilled inclusion criteria. RESULTS Lifetime comorbidity rates of BDD-OCD are almost three times higher in samples with a primary diagnosis of BDD than those with primary OCD (27.5% vs 10.4%). However, other mental disorders, such as social phobia or major mood depression, are more likely among both types of psychiatric samples. Empirical evidence regarding the etiopathogenic pathways for BDD-OCD comorbidity is still inconclusive, whether concerning common shared features or one disorder as a risk factor for the other. Specifically, current findings concerning third variables show more divergences than similarities when comparing both disorders. Preliminary data on the clinical characterization of the patients with BDD and OCD indicate that the deleterious clinical impact of BDD in OCD patients is greater than vice versa. CONCLUSION Despite the recent inclusion of BDD within the OCDRD, data from comparative studies between BDD and OCD need further evidence for supporting this nosological approach. To better define this issue, comparative studies between BDD, OCD, and social phobia should be carried out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro Frías
- FPCEE Blanquerna, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain ; Adult Outpatient Mental Health Center, Hospital de Mataró - CSdM, Mataró, Spain
| | - Carol Palma
- FPCEE Blanquerna, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain ; Adult Outpatient Mental Health Center, Hospital de Mataró - CSdM, Mataró, Spain
| | - Núria Farriols
- FPCEE Blanquerna, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain ; Adult Outpatient Mental Health Center, Hospital de Mataró - CSdM, Mataró, Spain
| | - Laura González
- Adult Outpatient Mental Health Center, Hospital de Mataró - CSdM, Mataró, Spain
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