Reconstruction of the Orbital Floor With Sheets of Autogenous Iliac Cancellous Bone

Surgical treatment of enophthalmos in children and adolescents with pure orbital blowout fracture

PURPOSE

This study evaluated outcomes of surgical treatment for enophthalmos after pediatric orbital blowout fracture. Associations of fracture type, fracture site, time from injury to treatment, and type of surgical procedure with treatment outcomes were assessed.

METHODS

The medical records of 200 children and adolescents (38 girls and 162 boys) with orbital fractures treated in the authors' department from 1975 to 2015 were reviewed retrospectively. The main causes of injury were accidental blows to the orbit and sports injuries. This study included only patients with fracture of the floor and/or medial wall of the orbit, which is referred to in the English literature as pure, or internal, blowout fracture. Patients with fracture of the orbital rim, lateral wall, or roof were excluded. Surgical treatment was performed for 178 patients; the other 22 children were treated conservatively.

RESULTS

In the surgically treated group, treatment outcomes did not differ in relation to the severity of post-traumatic enophthalmos. The setting of the eyeball improved in 83% of patients.

CONCLUSION

The severity of post-traumatic enophthalmos was not associated with surgical outcome in children.

Treatment of orbital blowout fracture using a customized rigid carrier

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the usefulness of treating orbital blowout fracture using a customized rigid carrier.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Patients who underwent surgery for orbital blowout fractures in our department from April 2016 to March 2019 were recruited in the study. We molded a rigid thermoplastic material into the same shape as the reconstruction material according to the 3D model and transplanted it into the orbital space along with the reconstruction material. We assessed Hertel exophthalmometry, awareness of diplopia, and the Hess area ratio (HAR%).

RESULTS

We performed this procedure in 15 patients with blowout fractures. Reconstruction materials used were iliac bone, absorbable plates, and titanium mesh in 12, 2, and 1 patient, respectively. None of the patients showed a difference of more than 2 mm on Hertel exophthalmometry. Only one patient had diplopia after surgery. The average preoperative and postoperative HAR% were 83.1 and 90.6, respectively. HAR% was more than 85% in 6 of 7 postoperative cases.

CONCLUSIONS

This method can be applied for surgery using various reconstructive materials and can be a useful method, especially in patients with a wide range of orbital bone defects.

Analysis of Orbital Morphology and its Relationship With Eyelid Morphology

Correct anatomical reconstruction of the orbital wall for function and cosmesis is important; however, this is difficult because of the structure's complexity. The authors aimed to analyze and classify orbital morphology from computed tomography (CT) images and examine the relationship between orbital morphology and eyelid morphology in the Japanese population. CT images of 60 men (right side, 29; left side, 31) and 44 women (each side, 22) were included. The lengths of the orbital medial wall and floor in the coronal plane at the anterior, middle, and posterior planes of the orbit; angle between them; simotic index; and the thickness of upper eyelid were measured. Additionally, the presence or absence of double eyelids was evaluated. Non-paired Student's t test and Pearson correlation coefficient test were used for analysis. Orbital morphology was symmetrical on both sides, and men had a larger orbit than women. Orbital morphology was classified into 2 groups according to the posterior angle, and there was a difference between the groups in the simotic index. The difference between groups may represent a genetic difference between the Jomon and Yayoi people and not only provide a new classification for the orbit of the population but also be useful in orbital reconstruction.

Scapular Bone Grafts: Good Options for Craniofacial Defects?

INTRODUCTION

There is still no consensus on the ideal material to be used in craniofacial defects. Autogenous bone grafts are mostly preferred owing to their use with fewer complications. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the scapular bone graft can be used with equal or more advantages to other bone graft resources in orbital, maxillary sinus front wall, and frontal bone defects.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty-four orbital, maxillary sinus front wall, and frontal bone defects were reconstructed with scapular bone grafts. Sixteen patients presented with complicated orbital fractures, 5 patients presented with isolated orbital floor fractures, and 3 patients presented with frontal bone fractures. The grafts were radiologically evaluated 1 day, 6 months, and 12 months postoperatively by 3-dimensional computed tomography scan.

RESULTS

All orbital, maxillary sinus front wall, and frontal bone defects were reconstructed successfully with scapular bone grafts. Clinical evaluation of the patients at 6 to 24 months of follow-up was considered satisfactory. Minimal donor site morbidity was observed. Scapular bone grafts adapted nicely to the recipient area, and bony union was complete as demonstrated by 3-dimensional computed tomography scans.

CONCLUSIONS

Reconstruction of orbital, maxillary sinus front wall, and frontal bone defects with scapular bone grafts is an easy and safe procedure with minimal donor site morbidity. Scapular bone graft is a good reconstructive option for orbital, maxillary sinus front wall, and frontal bone defects.

Reconstruction using 'triangular approximation' of bone grafts for orbital blowout fractures

There are many orbital wall reconstruction materials that can be used in surgery for orbital blowout fractures. We consider autogenous bone grafts to have the best overall characteristics among these materials and use thinned, inner cortical tables of the ilium. A bone bender is normally used to shape the inner iliac table to match the orbital shape. Since orbital walls curve three-dimensionally, processing of bone grafts is not easy and often requires much time and effort. We applied a triangular approximation method to the processing of bone grafts. Triangular approximation is a concept used in computer graphics for polygon processing. In this method, the shape of an object is represented as combinations of polygons, mainly triangles. In this study, the inner iliac table was used as a bone graft, and cuts or scores were made to create triangular sections. These triangular sections were designed three-dimensionally so that the shape of the resulting graft approximated to the three-dimensional orbital shape. This method was used in 12 patients with orbital blowout fractures, which included orbital floor fractures, medial wall fractures, and combined inferior and medial wall fractures. In all patients, bone grafts conformed to the orbital shape and good results were obtained. This simple method uses a reasonable and easy-to-understand approach and is useful in the treatment of bone defects in orbital blowout fractures when using a hard graft material.

A new option for the reconstruction of orbital floor defects with heterologous cortical bone

BACKGROUND

The orbital floor is one of the most frequently injured areas of the maxillofacial skeleton during facial trauma. A retrospective analysis of patients who have undergone treatment of orbital floor fractures with heterologous cortical bone is presented.

METHODS

This retrospective study was carried out with 21 patients over a period of 4 years between 2010 and 2014. All patients with a traumatic orbital floor defect who underwent reconstruction with heterologous cortical bone were included. The operations were carried out under general anesthesia for all patients. A subciliary incision was used in 20 patients and an infraorbital approach was used in one patient. All patients underwent follow-up examinations clinically as well as radiologically, at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months postoperatively. Computed tomographic scans were taken at the postoperative 6th month, and at the first postoperative year if needed.

RESULTS

Preoperatively, the physical examination revealed diplopia in 17 patients (80.9%), gaze restriction in 14 patients (66.6%), enophthalmos in six patients (28.5%), and infraorbital nerve paresthesia in two patients (9.5%). None of the patients showed impaired visual acuity preoperatively or postoperatively. Diplopia and gaze restriction resolved postoperatively in all of the patients. All patients had a negative intraoperative forced duction test demonstrating free globe movement. Enophthalmos showed complete resolution in the postoperative period. In one of the two patients with preoperative infraorbital nerve paresthesia, this resolved at the postoperative fifth month. Scleral show appeared in six patients but resolved completely within 3-8 weeks with massage. There was no graft extrusion, resorption or displacement during the follow-up period.

CONCLUSIONS

Tecnoss Semi Soft Lamina is a good alternative for the reconstruction of blowout fractures due to its plasticity and biocompatible structure. Without donor site morbidity, it is a safe and appropriate heterologous bone graft material for maxillofacial applications such as orbital floor reconstruction. We cannot recommend its use for near-total, wide orbital floor defects as it may not provide enough support in such circumstances.

Reconstruction of orbital floor blow-out fractures with autogenous iliac crest bone: a retrospective study including maxillofacial and ophthalmology perspectives

This is a 10-year retrospective study of patients with an isolated unilateral orbital floor fracture reconstructed with an autogenous iliac crest bone graft. The following inclusion criteria applied: isolated orbital floor fracture without involvement of the orbital rim or other craniofacial injuries, pre-/post-operative ophthalmological/orthoptic follow-up, pre-operative CT. Variables recorded were patient age and gender, aetiology of injury, time to surgery, follow-up period, surgical morbidity, diplopia pre- and post-operatively (Hess test), eyelid position, visual acuity, and the presence of en-/or exophthalmos (Hertel exophthalmometer). Twenty patients met the inclusion criteria. The mean age was 29 years. The mean follow up period was 26 months. No patient experienced significant donor site morbidity. There were no episodes of post-operative infection or graft extrusion. Three patients had diplopia in extremes of vision post-operatively, but no interference with activities of daily living. One patient had post-operative enophthalmos. Isolated orbital blow-out fractures may be safely and predictably reconstructed using autogenous iliac crest bone. The rate of complications in the group of patients studied was low. The value of pre- and post-operative ophthalmology consultation cannot be underestimated, and should be considered the standard of care in all patients with orbitozygomatic fractures, in particular those with blow-out fractures.

Comparison of efficacy of mandible and iliac bone as autogenous bone graft for orbital floor reconstruction

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated and compared the efficacy of mandible and iliac bone as autogenous bone graft for correction of orbital floor fractures.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Twenty patients who suffered orbital floor fractures took part in the study. The subjects enrolled in the study sustained both isolated orbital floor fracture and orbital floor fracture associated with fracture of zygomatico-maxillary complex. Each inferior orbital wall was reconstructed using either a mandible bone graft or an iliac graft. Mandibular symphysis was opted as a donor site for graft harvest from mandible and anterior iliac crest for the iliac group. CT scans were taken before the operation. Inclusion criteria consisted of at least 2 months postsurgical follow-up, pre- and post-surgical photographic documentation, and complete medical records regarding inpatient and outpatient data. To describe the distribution of complications and facilitate statistical analysis, we categorized our findings into diplopia, enophthalmos, and restriction of ocular movements before and after treatment. We also considered the time required for the harvest of the grafts and the donor site complications. A comparative study was carried out using Chi square test and student t test. We considered P value <0.05 to be statistically significant.

RESULTS

Ten iliac crest grafts and ten mandible bone grafts were placed. The mean age of the patients was 33.1 years. 80 % of the patients were males. The most common complication of orbital floor fracture was diplopia, followed by enophthalmos and restriction of ocular movements. The post operative results were compared after 2 months of the surgery. In iliac crest group, diplopia got corrected in six out of seven patients (85 %), enophthalmos in four out of five patients (80 %) and restricted ocular movement showed 100 % correction. While in mandible group, diplopia and ocular movement showed 100 % correction and enophthalmos got corrected in five out of six patients (83 %). No statistically significant differences were found between the two groups on comparing these variables. On the other hand the mean time required for the harvest of iliac graft and mandible graft was 30.2 ± 3.52 min and 16.8 ± 1.75 min respectively. The difference was statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

There is no difference in the ability of mandible and anterior iliac crest bone grafts to correct post-traumatic diplopia, enophthalmos and restricted ocular movements. But the time and ease of harvest of the graft from mandible was comparatively less and easy especially when the treating doctor was an oral and maxillofacial surgeon. Secondly the post-operative morbidity was low and the quality and contour of the bone graft was very adaptable for the reconstruction of the orbital floor.

A biomechanical study regarding the effect of tissue harvesting from the thorax on its movement during inspiration

OBJECTIVE

In the practice of plastic surgery, ribs and cartilage are often harvested for use in auto-grafts. This study aimed to elucidate the effect of such harvesting on the inspiration movement of the thorax.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixteen three-dimensional computer simulation models were produced by reference to the CT data of 16 patients. To simulate the harvesting of ribs and costal cartilages, parts were removed from these thorax models, thereby producing models with different types of defect. By performing finite element calculation after applying contracture forces on the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm, the movement patterns exhibited by the thoraces during inspiration were analyzed. The relationships between the defect types and the movement patterns were evaluated with reference to the dynamic behavior of the sternum and the increase in thoracic volume.

RESULTS

Although the removal of costal cartilage can cause asymmetric movement of the thorax, it did not affect the inspiration movement of the thorax. However, removal of two or more ribs not only caused asymmetric movement of the thorax, but also negatively affected that movement. Removal of two or three ribs impaired the expansion of the hemi-thorax on inspiration by 10% and 40%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The present study is the first to clarify the quantitative effect of tissue harvesting from the thorax on inspiration. The findings will be useful for surgeons when planning operations requiring harvesting of tissue from the thorax.

Transzygomatic Kirschner wire fixation for the treatment of blowout fracture

BACKGROUND

Total orbital floor reconstruction with sheet-shape materials is available for the treatment of extensive and crushed-type blowout fractures. Simple blowout fractures, on the other hand, require only manual reduction without fixation. Although several types of blowout fractures do not require total reconstruction, some fixation is usually necessary.

METHODS

Eighteen cases of blowout fracture were treated with transzygomatic Kirschner wire fixation between 2002 and 2009. This technique was applied to simple fracture cases in which periorbital soft tissue re-herniated through the floor defect into the maxillary sinus after manual reduction, despite improvement of the extra-ocular muscle entrapment. The wire was used to directly support the fracture segment in five cases and used together with a maxillary sinus anterior wall bone graft in 13 cases.

RESULTS

Mean follow-up was 12.5 months. Mild diplopia remained as a subjective symptom in one case. None of the cases developed major complications or conspicuous scars on the cheek.

CONCLUSIONS

Transzygomatic Kirschner wire fixation for blowout fracture has the advantages of precise and rigid fixation of all parts of the inferior floor, minimal morbidity without requiring an orbital approach and long-term safety without artificial remnants. This technique can be applied for the treatment of simple blowout fractures.

Mandibular symphysis graft versus iliac cortical graft in reconstructing floor in orbital blow out fracture: A comparative study

Aim:

The purpose of this study was to clinically and radiologically assess and compare the outcome of internal orbital reconstruction with an iliac bone graft and mandibular symphysis graft in orbital blow out fractures.

Materials and Methods:

Eight consecutive patients with unilateral orbital blow out fractures were enrolled in this prospective study. CT scan imaging and volumetric assessment of the orbit was done for all patients using GE Discovery VCT Workstation 4.4. Patients with defect of area less than 2 cm² and orbital volume expansion of less than 4.7 cm³ were treated with mandibular symphysis graft, in contrast the others were treated with a medial cortical graft from the anterior ilium. At each follow-up visit, globe posture, diplopia, and eye movements were assessed. Coronal and sagittal computed tomography and volumetric assessment were used to observe graft posture, bone defects and contour.

Results:

Group I cases showed that orbital volume changes of less than 2cm³ can be effectively reduced. Group II cases showed that orbital volume changes of more than 4.5 cm³ could not be effectively restored in spite of using large iliac graft. All eight patients had satisfactory correction of hypoglobus. Diplopia and ocular motility restriction resolved in all affected patients post operatively between 4^th day and 2^nd week. At 3-month follow-up, computed tomography demonstrated that the middle section of the orbital floor was well elevated in all 8 orbits. All grafts were still in situ, with density measured in Hounsfield units revealed that the Mandible Symphyseal graft was denser.

Conclusion:

The mandibular symphysis graft is a good, simple reconstructive option in small orbital floor defects with orbital volume change less than 4.71 ml. In larger defects with huge orbital volume changes that require more volume of graft, iliac graft is useful albeit, perfect, volumetric restoration is not always possible

High-density porous polyethylene wedge implant in correction of enophthalmos and hypoglobus in seeing eyes

INTRODUCTION

To report the results of post-traumatic enophthalmos/hypophthalmos correction with high-density porous polyethylene wedge implants in seeing eyes.

METHODS

This is an interventional case series of 25 patients (25 eyes) with post-traumatic enophthalmos and hypophthalmos, who underwent orbital reconstruction to correct the enophthalmos and hypophthalmos using Medpor® wedge implant. The aim was an overcorrection of 1 mm in comparison to the other eye, intra-operatively. If needed, trimming of the wedge implant or adding Medpor® sheets were used to achieve the goal. Success was defined as achieving the globe position within 1 mm of the other eye in the last follow-up. Improvement and failure were considered as correction outside the success range of 1 mm and no change in the amount of enophthalmos/hypophthalmos, respectively.

RESULTS

Patients were followed for at least 6 months (mean= 12.66, SD= 12.32). Success, improvement and failure of enophthalmos correction were: 58.3% (14/24), 37.5% (9/24) and 1 (1/24, 4.1%), respectively. Success, improvement and failure of hypophthalmos correction were 73.68% (14/19), 15.78% (3/19) and 5.26% (1/19), respectively. There was no significant difference between the success rate of enophthalmos versus hypophthalmos correction (P= 0.8). Results of 1-month follow up change in enophthalmos and hypophthalmos significantly correlated (r= 0.92, P= 0.000) with the change recorded at last follow up.

CONCLUSIONS

Porous polyethylene wedge implants are useful and safe in correction of enophthalmos and hypoglobus in seeing eyes. Appropriately positioned implant yields no significant difference in correction of enophthalmos versus hypophthalmos.

Biomaterials and implants for orbital floor repair

Treatment of orbital floor fractures and defects is often a complex issue. Repair of these injuries essentially aims to restore the continuity of the orbital floor and to provide an adequate support to the orbital content. Several materials and implants have been proposed over the years for orbital floor reconstruction, in the hope of achieving the best clinical outcome for the patient. Autografts have been traditionally considered as the "gold standard" choice due to the absence of an adverse immunological response, but they are available in limited amounts and carry the need for extra surgery. In order to overcome the drawbacks related to autografts, researchers' and surgeons' attention has been progressively attracted by alloplastic materials, which can be commercially produced and easily tailored to fit a wide range of specific clinical needs. In this review the advantages and limitations of the various biomaterials proposed and tested for orbital floor repair are critically examined and discussed. Criteria and guidelines for optimal material/implant choice, as well as future research directions, are also presented, in an attempt to understand whether an ideal biomaterial already exists or a truly functional implant will eventually materialise in the next few years.

Functional outcome after surgical treatment of orbital floor fractures

In the present article, the authors want to present the results of a retrospectively evaluated consecutive series of patients with surgically treated isolated orbital floor fractures (OFF; "blow-out fractures") concerning the functional outcome after OFF and give detailed recommendations based on the clinical and radiological findings. A series of 60 patients with isolated OFF over a 5-year period needing surgically repair at the same institution were evaluated. Patient data were analysed in terms of preoperative and postoperative clinical parameters and radiological findings. The analysed parameters were type of fracture, diplopia, gaze restriction, enophthalmos, materials used for repair, surgical approach and timing of the surgical intervention. Burst type fractures were more often found than punched-out fractures. The most frequently used surgical approach was a preseptal transconjunctival approach. An overall decrease of gaze restriction (93%), diplopia (89%) and enophthalmos (86%) was observed. According to the fracture size, we used Ethisorb patches in smaller fractures and resorbable or titanium meshes or autologous bone in larger fractures in most cases. Patients who underwent surgery more than 7 days after the trauma showed better results with regard to an improvement of diplopia and motility disturbances than patients who were treated immediately. In indicated cases, the surgical repair of OFF leads to very good results if the anatomical and functional properties of the orbit and its contents are respected. The applied strategy and means presented in our study proved of value and can therefore be recommended.

Update on orbital reconstruction

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Orbital trauma is common and frequently complicated by ocular injuries. The recent literature on orbital fracture is analyzed with emphasis on epidemiological data assessment, surgical timing, method of approach and reconstruction materials.

RECENT FINDINGS

Computed tomographic (CT) scan has become a routine evaluation tool for orbital trauma, and mobile CT can be applied intraoperatively if necessary. Concomitant serious ocular injury should be carefully evaluated preoperatively. Patients presenting with nonresolving oculocardiac reflex, 'white-eyed' blowout fracture, or diplopia with a positive forced duction test and CT evidence of orbital tissue entrapment require early surgical repair. Otherwise, enophthalmos can be corrected by late surgery with a similar outcome to early surgery. The use of an endoscope-assisted approach for orbital reconstruction continues to grow, offering an alternative method. Advances in alloplastic materials have improved surgical outcome and shortened operating time.

SUMMARY

In this review of modern orbital reconstruction, several controversial issues such as surgical indication, surgical timing, method of approach and choice of reconstruction material are discussed. Preoperative fine-cut CT image and thorough ophthalmologic examination are key elements to determine surgical indications. The choice of surgical approach and reconstruction materials much depends on the surgeon's experience and the reconstruction area. Prefabricated alloplastic implants together with image software and stereolithographic models are significant advances that help to more accurately reconstruct the traumatized orbit. The recent evolution of orbit reconstruction improves functional and aesthetic results and minimizes surgical complications.

Accelerated osteomesh resorption: a case report

Facial fractures occur commonly as a result of blunt trauma from road traffic accidents, assaults, and sporting injuries. Orbital floor fractures form a significant proportion of these and when large enough, the defect often requires surgical reconstruction of the floor to prevent orbital content herniation. Here, we present a case of a 28-year-old gentleman, who sustained an orbital floor fracture from a soccer-related injury. The resulting floor defect was surgically repaired using an osteomesh that was hand-cut to size. He developed delayed enophthalmos and entrapment of the inferior rectus muscle due to early resorption of the osteomesh, requiring revision surgery.

Retrospective analysis of orbital floor fractures--complications, outcome, and review of literature

This retrospective study aimed at investigating indications, surgical approaches, and the materials used for orbital floor reconstructions, as well as the clinical follow-up, particularly with regard to postoperative complications. This study comprised 189 patients who underwent surgery for fractures of the orbital floor between 2003 and 2007. Diagnosis and treatment were based on both physical examination and computed tomography scan of the orbit. Patients were retrospectively analyzed for data, such as mechanism of injury, classification of fracture, and complications. The most common cause of injury was physical assault followed by traffic accidents. Surgery was conducted with a mean delay of 2.9 days after the incident. Mid lower eyelid incision was the most common surgical approach to the orbital floor. For orbital floor reconstruction, polydioxanone sheets (70.5%) were mainly used, followed by Ethisorb Dura (23.3%) and titanium mesh (6.2%). There were 19.0% of patients who showed postoperative complications: 5.8% suffered from persisting motility impairment, 3.7% from enophthalmos, 3.2% from consistent diplopia, 2.6% from ectropion, and 0.5% from orbital infection. Intraorbital hematoma (3.2%) represented the most severe complications, one patient suffered lasting impairment of sight and another one, complete blindness of the affected eye. If postoperative impairment of vision becomes evident, immediate surgical intervention is mandatory. Retrobulbar hematoma is more likely to occur in heavily traumatized patients with comminuted fractures and also in patients taking anticoagulative medication. The subciliary approach to the orbit and repeated operations by the same approach are associated with a higher risk of developing ectropion.