Target separation of a new anti-tumor saponin and metabolic profiling of leaves of Panax notoginseng by liquid chromatography with eletrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Biotransformation approach to produce rare ginsenosides F1, compound Mc1, and Rd2 from major ginsenosides

The stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng contain high saponins, but they are often discarded as agricultural waste. In this study, the predominant ginsenosides Rg1, Rc, and Rb2, presented in the stems and leaves of ginseng plants, were biotransformed into value-added rare ginsenosides F1, compound Mc1 (C-Mc1), and Rd2, respectively. A fungal strain YMS6 (Penicillium sp.) was screened from the soil as a biocatalyst with high selectivity for the deglycosylation of major ginsenosides. Under the optimal fermentation conditions, the yields of F1, C-Mc1, and Rd2 were 97.95, 68.64, and 79.58%, respectively. This study provides a new microbial resource for the selective conversion of protopanaxadiol-type and protopanaxatriol-type major saponins into rare ginsenosides via the whole-cell biotransformation and offers a solution for the better utilization of P. notoginseng waste.

Rare ginsenosides: A unique perspective of ginseng research

BACKGROUND

Rare ginsenosides (Rg3, Rh2, C-K, etc.) refer to a group of dammarane triterpenoids that exist in low natural abundance, mostly produced by deglycosylation or side chain modification via physicochemical processing or metabolic transformation in gut, and last but not least, exhibited potent biological activity comparing to the primary ginsenosides, which lead to a high concern in both the research and development of ginseng and ginsenoside-related nutraceutical and natural products. Nevertheless, a comprehensive review on these promising compounds is not available yet.

AIM OF REVIEW

In this review, recent advances of Rare ginsenosides (RGs) were summarized dealing with the structurally diverse characteristics, traditional usage, drug discovery situation, clinical application, pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, toxicity, the stereochemistry properties, and production strategies.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

A total of 144 RGs with diverse skeletons and bioactivities were isolated from Panax species. RGs acted as natural ligands on some specific receptors, such as bile acid receptors, steroid hormone receptors, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptors. The RGs showed promising bioactivities including immunoregulatory and adaptogen-like effect, anti-aging effect, anti-tumor effect, as well as their effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular system, central nervous system, obesity and diabetes, and interaction with gut microbiota. Clinical trials indicated the potential of RGs, while high quality data remains inadequate, and no obvious side effects was found. The stereochemistry properties induced by deglycosylation at C (20) were also addressed including pharmacodynamics behaviors, together with the state-of-art analytical strategies for the identification of saponin stereoisomers. Finally, the batch preparation of targeted RGs by designated strategies including heating or acid/ alkaline-assisted processes, and enzymatic biotransformation and biosynthesis were discussed. Hopefully, the present review can provide more clues for the extensive understanding and future in-depth research and development of RGs, originated from the worldwide well recognized ginseng plants.

Mass Spectroscopy as an Analytical Tool to Harness the Production of Secondary Plant Metabolites: The Way Forward for Drug Discovery

The molecular map of diverse biological molecules linked with structure, function, signaling, and regulation within a cell can be elucidated using an analytically demanding omic approach. The latest trend of using "metabolomics" technologies has explained the natural phenomenon of opening a new avenue to understand and enhance bioactive compounds' production. Examination of sequenced plant genomes has revealed that a considerable portion of these encodes genes of secondary metabolism. In addition to genetic and molecular tools developed in the current era, the ever-increasing knowledge about plant metabolism's biochemistry has initiated an approach for wisely designed, more productive genetic engineering of plant secondary metabolism for improved defense systems and enhanced biosynthesis of beneficial metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites are natural products synthesized by plants that are not directly involved with their average growth and development but play a vital role in plant defense mechanisms. Plant secondary metabolites are classified into four major classes: terpenoids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and sulfur-containing compounds. More than 200,000 secondary metabolites are synthesized by plants having a unique and complex structure. Secondary plant metabolites are well characterized and quantified by omics approaches and therefore used by humans in different sectors such as agriculture, pharmaceuticals, chemical industries, and biofuel. The aim is to establish metabolomics as a comprehensive and dynamic model of diverse biological molecules for biomarkers and drug discovery. In this chapter, we aim to illustrate the role of metabolomic technology, precisely liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, specifically as a research tool in the production and identification of novel bioactive compounds for drug discovery and to obtain a unified insight of secondary metabolism in plants.

Production of Minor Ginsenosides from Panax notoginseng Flowers by Cladosporium xylophilum

Panax notoginseng flowers have the highest content of saponins compared to the other parts of Panax notoginseng, but minor ginsenosides have higher pharmacological activity than the main natural ginsenosides. Therefore, this study focused on the transformation of the main ginsenosides in Panax notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides using the fungus of Cladosporium xylophilum isolated from soil. The main ginsenosides Rb₁, Rb₂, Rb₃, and Rc and the notoginsenoside Fa in Panax notoginseng flowers were transformed into the ginsenosides F₂ and Rd₂, the notoginsenosides Fd and Fe, and the ginsenoside R₇; the conversion rates were 100, 100, 100, 88.5, and 100%, respectively. The transformation products were studied by TLC, HPLC, and MS analyses, and the biotransformation pathways of the major ginsenosides were proposed. In addition, the purified enzyme of the fungus was prepared with the molecular weight of 66.4 kDa. The transformation of the monomer ginsenosides by the crude enzyme is consistent with that by the fungus. Additionally, three saponins were isolated from the transformation products and identified as the ginsenoside Rd₂ and the notoginsenosides Fe and Fd by NMR and MS analyses. This study provided a unique and powerful microbial strain for efficiently transformating major ginsenosides in P. notoginseng flowers to minor ginsenosides, which will help raise the functional and economic value of the P. notoginseng flower.

Simultaneous Determination of 25 Ginsenosides by UPLC-HRMS via Quantitative Analysis of Multicomponents by Single Marker

A method using UPLC-HRMS has been developed for a rapid, simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analysis of twenty-five ginsenosides. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C₁₈ analytical column with an elution gradient comprising 0.1% aqueous formate/acetonitrile as the mobile phase. HRMS detection acquired full mass data for quantification and fullms-ddms² (i.e., data-dependent scan mode) yielded product ion spectra for identification. Furthermore, quantitative analysis of multiginsenosides by single marker (QAMS) was developed and validated using a relative correction factor. Under optimal conditions, we could simultaneously separate eight groups of isomers of the 25 ginsenosides. Good linearity was observed over the validated concentration range for each analyte (r² > 0.9924), showing excellent sensitivity (LODs, 0.003–0.349 ng/mL) and lower limit quantification (LOQs, 0.015–1.163 ng/mL). The LC-MS external standard method (ESM) and QAMS were compared and successfully applied to analyze the ginsenoside content from Panax ginseng roots. Overall, our UPLC-HRMS/QAMS approach provides high precision, stability, and reproducibility and can be used for high-throughput analysis of complex ginsenosides and quantitative analysis of multiple components and quality control of traditional Chinese medicines (TCM).

Comprehensive Investigation on Ginsenosides in Different Parts of a Garden-Cultivated Ginseng Root and Rhizome

Background: Ginseng is widely used as herb or food. Different parts of ginseng have diverse usages. However, the comprehensive analysis on the ginsenosides in different parts of ginseng root is scarce. Methods: An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with UNIFI informatics platform and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-charged aerosol detection (UHPLC-CAD) were employed to evaluate the different parts of cultivated ginseng root. Results: 105 ginsenosides including 16 new compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. 22 potential chemical markers were identified, 20, 17, and 19 for main root (MR) and fibrous root (FR), main root (MR) and branch root (BR), and main root (MR) and rhizome (RH), respectively. The relative contents of Re, Rb₁, 20(R)-Rh₁, Rd, and Rf were highest in FR. The relative content of Rg₁ was highest in RH. The total relative content of pharmacopoeia indicators Rg₁, Re, and Rb₁ was highest in FR. Conclusion: The differences among these parts were the compositions and relative contents of ginsenosides. Under our research conditions, the peak area ratio of Rg₁ and Re could distinguish the MR and FR samples. Fibrous roots showed rich ingredients and high ginsenosides contents which should be further utilized.

Efficient separation of five flavonoids from Oxytropis falcata bunge by high-speed counter-current chromatography and their anticancer activity

Oxytropis falcata Bunge, known as the “king of herbs” in Tibetan medicine, is used for treatment of hyperpyrexia, pain, wounds, inflammation, and anthrax. However, it is difficult to efficiently isolate compounds with high purity from O. falcata because of the complexity of traditional Tibetan medicines. In this study, the 80% ethanol elution fraction from extract by AB-8 macroporous resin column chromatography was demonstrated to have anticancer activity on human hepatoma SMMC-7721 cells in vitro. Then, a high-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) method was successfully established for separation of compounds by using hexane–ethyl acetate–methanol–water (10:4:10:10, v/v/v/v) as the solvent system. Five flavonoids (7-hydroxyflavonone [1], 5,7-dihydroxy-4′-methoxy flavonol [2], 5,7-dihydroxyflavanone [3], 2′,4′-dihydroxychalcone [4], and 2′,4′-dihydroxydihydrochalcone [5]) were obtained in one-step separation with purities of 97.7%, 98.1%, 98.3%, 99.0%, and 98.3%, respectively. Finally, anticancer activities against the growth of SMMC-7721 cells of 5 flavonoids were confirmed. The IC50 values of the separated compounds were 213.45 μg/mL, 197.74 μg/mL, 375.16 μg/mL, 17.44 μg/mL, and 136.83 μg/mL in 24 h, respectively. The present study provided a basis for further development and utilization of this medicinal herb as a source of a new potential anticancer agent.

Plant-Based Phytochemicals as Possible Alternative to Antibiotics in Combating Bacterial Drug Resistance

The unprecedented use of antibiotics that led to development of resistance affect human health worldwide. Prescription of antibiotics imprudently and irrationally in different diseases progressed with the acquisition and as such development of antibiotic resistant microbes that led to the resurgence of pathogenic strains harboring enhanced armors against existing therapeutics. Compromised the treatment regime of a broad range of antibiotics, rise in resistance has threatened human health and increased the treatment cost of diseases. Diverse on metabolic, genetic and physiological fronts, rapid progression of resistant microbes and the lack of a strategic management plan have led researchers to consider plant-derived substances (PDS) as alternative or in complementing antibiotics against the diseases. Considering the quantitative characteristics of plant constituents that attribute health beneficial effects, analytical procedures for their isolation, characterization and phytochemical testing for elucidating ethnopharmacological effects has being worked out for employment in the treatment of different diseases. With an immense potential to combat bacterial infections, PDSs such as polyphenols, alkaloids and tannins, present a great potential for use, either as antimicrobials or as antibiotic resistance modifiers. The present study focuses on the mechanisms by which PDSs help overcome the surge in resistance, approaches for screening different phytochemicals, methods employed in the identification of bioactive components and their testing and strategies that could be adopted for counteracting the lethal consequences of multidrug resistance.

Phytochemical analysis of Panax species: a review

Panax species have gained numerous attentions because of their various biological effects on cardiovascular, kidney, reproductive diseases known for a long time. Recently, advanced analytical methods including thin layer chromatography, high-performance thin layer chromatography, gas chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with tandem ultraviolet, diode array detector, evaporative light scattering detector, and mass detector, two-dimensional high-performance liquid chromatography, high speed counter-current chromatography, high speed centrifugal partition chromatography, micellar electrokinetic chromatography, high-performance anion-exchange chromatography, ambient ionization mass spectrometry, molecularly imprinted polymer, enzyme immunoassay, ¹H-NMR, and infrared spectroscopy have been used to identify and evaluate chemical constituents in Panax species. Moreover, Soxhlet extraction, heat reflux extraction, ultrasonic extraction, solid phase extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, acceleration solvent extraction, matrix solid phase dispersion extraction, and pulsed electric field are discussed. In this review, a total of 219 articles published from 1980 to 2018 are investigated. Panax species including P. notoginseng, P. quinquefolius, sand P. ginseng in the raw and processed forms from different parts, geographical origins, and growing times are studied. Furthermore, the potential biomarkers are screened through the previous articles. It is expected that the review can provide a fundamental for further studies.

Dammarane-type triterpene oligoglycosides from the leaves and stems of Panax notoginseng and their antiinflammatory activities

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is widespread in the clinical pathology and closely associated to the progress of many diseases. Triterpenoid saponins as a key group of active ingredients in Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen were demonstrated to show antiinflammatory effects. However, the chemical structures of saponins in the leaves and stems of Panax notoginseng (PNLS) are still not fully clear. Herein, the isolation, purification and further evaluation of the antiinflammatory activity of dammarane-type triterpenoid saponins from PNLS were conducted.

METHODS

Silica gel and reversed-phase C8 column chromatography were used. Furthermore, preparative HPLC was used as a final purification technique to obtain minor saponins with high purities. MS, NMR experiments, and chemical methods were used in the structural identifications. The antiinflammatory activities of the isolated saponins were assessed by measuring the nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated by lipopolysaccharides. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to measure the gene expressions of inflammation-related gene.

RESULTS

Eight new minor dammarane-type triterpene oligoglycosides, namely notoginsenosides LK1-LK8 (1-8) were obtained from PNLS, along with seven known ones. Among the isolated saponins, gypenoside IX significantly suppressed the nitric oxide production and inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin 10, interferon-inducible protein 10 and interleukin-1β.

CONCLUSION

The eight saponins may enrich and expand the chemical library of saponins in Panax genus. Moreover, it is reported for the first time that gypenoside IX showed moderate antiinflammatory activity.

Stem-leaf saponins from Panax notoginseng counteract aberrant autophagy and apoptosis in hippocampal neurons of mice with cognitive impairment induced by sleep deprivation

Backgroud

Sleep deprivation (SD) impairs learning and memory by inhibiting hippocampal functioning at molecular and cellular levels. Abnormal autophagy and apoptosis are closely associated with neurodegeneration in the central nervous system. This study is aimed to explore the alleviative effect and the underlying molecular mechanism of stem–leaf saponins of Panax notoginseng (SLSP) on the abnormal neuronal autophagy and apoptosis in hippocampus of mice with impaired learning and memory induced by SD.

Methods

Mouse spatial learning and memory were assessed by Morris water maze test. Neuronal morphological changes were observed by Nissl staining. Autophagosome formation was examined by transmission electron microscopy, immunofluorescent staining, acridine orange staining, and transient transfection of the tf-LC3 plasmid. Apoptotic event was analyzed by flow cytometry after PI/annexin V staining. The expression or activation of autophagy and apoptosis-related proteins were detected by Western blotting assay.

Results

SLSP was shown to improve the spatial learning and memory of mice after SD for 48 h, accomanied with restrained excessive autophage and apoptosis, whereas enhanced activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway in hippocampal neurons. Meanwhile, it improved the aberrant autophagy and apoptosis induced by rapamycin and re-activated phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling transduction in HT-22 cells, a hippocampal neuronal cell line.

Conclusion

SLSP could alleviate cognitive impairment induced by SD, which was achieved probably through suppressing the abnormal autophagy and apoptosis of hippocampal neurons. The findings may contribute to the clinical application of SLSP in the prevention or therapy of neurological disorders associated with SD.

Metabonomics Study on the Hepatoprotective Effect of Panax notoginseng Leaf Saponins Using UPLC/Q-TOF-MS Analysis

Alcohol liver disease is a major public health problem associated with lifestyle. Our recent study demonstrated that the roots of Panax notoginseng saponins (PNS) exert hepatoprotective effects against alcohol consumption. Considering that the leaves of Panax notoginseng saponins (LPNS) have similar chemical ingredients with PNS, increased attention should be given to the hepatoprotective effects of LPNS. In this study, a metabonomic approach based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF/MS) was developed to evaluate the hepatoprotective effect of LPNS on alcoholic fatty liver and elucidate the interaction mechanisms. Results showed that the ethanol-induced metabolic perturbations were restored after treatment with LPNS. Furthermore, 12 potential biomarkers (11 upregulated and 1 downregulated) were identified by V-plot and orthogonal partial least square discriminant analysis. Changes in the levels of these metabolites indicated that glycerophospholipid and fatty acid metabolism were disturbed in alcoholic fatty liver mouse. Our findings demonstrated that the UHPLC–QTOF/MS-based metabonomic method may provide a useful means for exploring biomarkers involved in alcoholic fatty liver and elucidating the therapeutic effects of LPNS. This work also showed that the metabonomic approach is a powerful and promising tool for the evaluation of the efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine and elucidation of related mechanisms.

Converting ginsenosides from stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng by microwave processing and improving their anticoagulant and anticancer activities

A microwave processing technology was applied to degrade saponins from the stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng. Six transformation products (1–6), named 20(S)-ginsenoside Rg₃ (1), 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg₃ (2), notoginsenoside SFt₃ (3), ginsenoside Rk₁ (4), ginsenoside Rg₅ (5), and 20(S)-ginsenoside Rh₂ (6) were isolated and identified from a microwave processed extract of the stems and leaves of P. notoginseng (MEL). This transformation method was also applied for producing the minor ginsenosides in flowers, seeds and pedicels of P. notoginseng. The extract and compounds 1–6 in MEL were evaluated in vitro for anticancer and anticoagulant activities. The results showed that the MEL extract and transformation products had outstanding inhibitory activities against human cervical cancer Hela and lung cancer A549 cells. The strongest inhibitory effect was observed for 20(S)-Rh₂ (6) with an IC₅₀ value of 8.23 μM in Hela cells. Moreover, the results showed that the MEL significantly prolonged prothrombin time in a concentration-dependent manner. The anticoagulant effect of the MEL improved with the increased contents of Rk₁, Rg₅, and SFt₃.

A microwave processing technology was used to produce anticoagulant and anticancer compounds from the stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng.

Comprehensive Profiling and Quantification of Ginsenosides in the Root, Stem, Leaf, and Berry of Panax ginseng by UPLC-QTOF/MS

The effective production and usage of ginsenosides, given their distinct pharmacological effects, are receiving increasing amounts of attention. As the ginsenosides content differs in different parts of Panax ginseng, we wanted to assess and compare the ginsenosides content in the ginseng roots, leave, stems, and berries. To extract the ginsenosides, 70% (v/v) methanol was used. The optimal ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) method was used to profile various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng. The datasets were then subjected to multivariate analysis including principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA). A UPLC-QTOF/MS method with an in-house library was constructed to profile 58 ginsenosides. With this method, a total of 39 ginsenosides were successfully identified and quantified in the ginseng roots, leave, stem, and berries. PCA and HCA characterized the different ginsenosides compositions from the different parts. The quantitative ginsenoside contents were also characterized from each plant part. The results of this study indicate that the UPLC-QTOF/MS method can be an effective tool to characterize various ginsenosides from the different parts of P. ginseng.

Preparative separation of minor saponins from Panax notoginseng leaves using biotransformation, macroporous resins, and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography

Background

Ginsenosides with less sugar moieties may exhibit the better adsorptive capacity and more pharmacological activities.

Methods

An efficient method for the separation of four minor saponins, including gypenoside XVII, notoginsenoside Fe, ginsenoside Rd2, and notoginsenoside Fd, from Panax notoginseng leaves (PNL) was established using biotransformation, macroporous resins, and subsequent preparative high-performance liquid chromatography.

Results

The dried PNL powder was immersed in the distilled water at 50°C for 30 min for converting the major saponins, ginsenosides Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rb3, to minor saponins, gypenoside XVII, notoginsenoside Fe, ginsenoside Rd2, and notoginsenoside Fd, respectively, by the enzymes present in PNL. The adsorption characteristics of these minor saponins on five types of macroporous resins, D-101, DA-201, DM-301, X-5, and S-8, were evaluated and compared. Among them, D-101 was selected due to the best adsorption and desorption properties. Under the optimized conditions, the fraction containing the four target saponins was separated by D-101 resin. Subsequently, the target minor saponins were individually separated and purified by preparative high-performance liquid chromatography with a reversed-phase column.

Conclusion

Our study provides a simple and efficient method for the preparation of these four minor saponins from PNL, which will be potential for industrial applications.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the saponins in Panax notoginseng leaves using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with UV detector

Background

Panax notoginseng leaves (PNL) exhibit extensive activities, but few analytical methods have been established to exclusively determine the dammarane triterpene saponins in PNL.

Methods

Ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/Q-TOF MS) and HPLC-UV methods were developed for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of ginsenosides in PNL, respectively.

Results

Extraction conditions, including solvents and extraction methods, were optimized, which showed that ginsenosides Rc and Rb3, the main components of PNL, are transformed to notoginsenosides Fe and Fd, respectively, in the presence of water, by removing a glucose residue from position C-3 via possible enzymatic hydrolysis. A total of 57 saponins were identified in the methanolic extract of PNL by UPLC/Q-TOF MS. Among them, 19 components were unambiguously characterized by their reference substances. Additionally, seven saponins of PNL—ginsenosides Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rb3, and notoginsenosides Fc, Fe, and Fd—were quantified using the HPLC-UV method after extraction with methanol. The separation of analytes, particularly the separation of notoginsenoside Fc and ginsenoside Rc, was achieved on a Zorbax ODS C8 column at a temperature of 35°C. This developed HPLC-UV method provides an adequate linearity (r² > 0.999), repeatability (relative standard deviation, RSD < 2.98%), and inter- and intraday variations (RSD < 4.40%) with recovery (98.7–106.1%) of seven saponins concerned. This validated method was also conducted to determine seven components in 10 batches of PNL.

Conclusion

These findings are beneficial to the quality control of PNL and its relevant products.

Chemical transformation and target preparation of saponins in stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng

Background

Notoginsenoside Ft1 is a promising potential candidate for cardiovascular and cancer disease therapy owing to its positive pharmacological activities. However, the yield of Ft1 is ultralow utilizing reported methods. Herein, an acid hydrolyzing strategy was implemented in the acquirement of rare notoginsenoside Ft1.

Methods

Chemical profiles were identified by ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadruple-time-of-flight and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-ESI-MS). The acid hydrolyzing dynamic changes of chemical compositions and the possible transformation pathways of saponins were monitored by ultrahigh-performance LC coupled with tandem MS (UHPLC-MS/MS).

Results and conclusion

Notoginsenoside Ft1 was epimerized from notoginsenoside ST4, which was generated through cleaving the carbohydrate side chains at C-20 of notoginsenosides Fa and Fc, and vina-ginsenoside R7, and further converted to other compounds via hydroxylation at C-25 or hydrolysis of the carbohydrate side chains at C-3 under the acid conditions. High temperature contributed to the hydroxylation reaction at C-25 and 25% acetic acid concentration was conducive to the preparation of notoginsenoside Ft1. C-20 epimers of notoginsenoside Ft1 and ST4 were successfully separated utilizing solvent method of acetic acid solution. The theoretical preparation yield rate of notoginsenoside Ft1 was about 1.8%, which would be beneficial to further study on its bioactivities and clinical application.

Traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a widely used traditional Chinese medicine known as Sanqi or Tianqi in China. This plant, which is distributed primarily in the southwest of China, has wide-ranging pharmacological effects and can be used to treat cardiovascular diseases, pain, inflammation and trauma as well as internal and external bleeding due to injury.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This paper provides up-to-date information on investigations of this plant, including its botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology. The possible uses and perspectives for future investigation of this plant are also discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The relevant information on Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen was collected from numerous resources, including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases, including Pubmed, SciFinder, ACS, Ebsco, Elsevier, Taylor, Wiley and CNKI.

RESULTS

More than 200 chemical compounds have been isolated from Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen, including saponins, flavonoids and cyclopeptides. The plant has pharmacological effects on the cardiovascular system, immune system as well as anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic, haemostatic and anti-tumour activities, etc.

CONCLUSIONS

Panax notoginseng is a valuable traditional Chinese medical herb with multiple pharmacological effects. This review summarizes the botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of P. notoginseng, and presents the constituents and their corresponding chemical structures found in P. notoginseng comprehensively for the first time. Future research into its phytochemistry of bio-active components should be performed by using bioactivity-guided isolation strategies. Further work on elucidation of the structure-function relationship among saponins, understanding of multi-target network pharmacology of P. notoginseng, as well as developing its new clinical usage and comprehensive utilize will enhance the therapeutic potentials of P. notoginseng.

A rapid method for chemical fingerprint analysis of Pan Panax notoginseng powders by ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

A method coupling ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (Qtof MS) using the electrospray ionization (ESI) source was developed for the identification of the major saponins from Panax notoginseng powder (PNP). Ten different PNP samples were analyzed and evaluated for their quality by similarity evaluation and principle component analysis (PCA). Based on the accurate mass, summarized characteristic fragmentation behaviors, retention times of different types of saponins, related botanical biogenesis, and reported chromatographic behavior of saponins, fifty-one common peaks were effectively separated and identified, including 28 protopanaxadiol saponins and 18 protopanaxatriol saponins. Simultaneously, 15 significant discrepancy compounds were identified from the disqualified PNP samples. The established UPLC/Qtof MS fingerprint method was successfully applied for profiling and identifying the major saponins of PNP, providing a fast quality evaluation tool for distinguishing the authentic PNP and the adulterated products.

Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review

Medicinal plants have historically proven their value as a source of molecules with therapeutic potential, and nowadays still represent an important pool for the identification of novel drug leads. In the past decades, pharmaceutical industry focused mainly on libraries of synthetic compounds as drug discovery source. They are comparably easy to produce and resupply, and demonstrate good compatibility with established high throughput screening (HTS) platforms. However, at the same time there has been a declining trend in the number of new drugs reaching the market, raising renewed scientific interest in drug discovery from natural sources, despite of its known challenges. In this survey, a brief outline of historical development is provided together with a comprehensive overview of used approaches and recent developments relevant to plant-derived natural product drug discovery. Associated challenges and major strengths of natural product-based drug discovery are critically discussed. A snapshot of the advanced plant-derived natural products that are currently in actively recruiting clinical trials is also presented. Importantly, the transition of a natural compound from a "screening hit" through a "drug lead" to a "marketed drug" is associated with increasingly challenging demands for compound amount, which often cannot be met by re-isolation from the respective plant sources. In this regard, existing alternatives for resupply are also discussed, including different biotechnology approaches and total organic synthesis. While the intrinsic complexity of natural product-based drug discovery necessitates highly integrated interdisciplinary approaches, the reviewed scientific developments, recent technological advances, and research trends clearly indicate that natural products will be among the most important sources of new drugs also in the future.

Analysis of the Constituents in "Zhu She Yong Xue Shuan Tong" by Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Combined with Preparative High Performance Liquid Chromatography

“Zhu She Yong Xue Shuan Tong” lyophilized powder (ZSYXST), consists of a series of saponins extracted from Panax notoginseng, which has been widely used in China for the treatment of strokes. In this study, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with preparative high performance liquid chromatography (PHPLC) method was developed to rapidly identify both major and minor saponins in ZSYXST. Some high content components were removed through PHPLC in order to increase the sensitivity of the trace saponins. Then, specific characteristic fragment ions in both positive and negative mode were utilized to determine the types of aglycone, saccharide, as well as the saccharide chain linkages. As a result, 94 saponins, including 20 pairs of isomers and ten new compounds, which could represent higher than 98% components in ZSYXST, were identified or tentatively identified in commercial ZSYXST samples.

Identification of ginsenoside markers from dry purified extract of Panax ginseng by a dereplication approach and UPLC-QTOF/MS analysis

A dry purified extract of Panax ginseng (PEG) was prepared using a manufacturing process that includes column chromatography, acid hydrolysis, and an enzyme reaction. During the manufacturing process, the more polar ginsenosides were altered into less polar forms via cleavage of their sugar chains and structural modifications of the aglycones, such as hydroxylation and dehydroxylation. The structural changes of ginsenosides during the intermediate steps from dried ginseng extract (DGE) to PEG were monitored by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectroscopy (UPLC-QTOF/MS). 22 ginsenosides isolated from PEG were used as the reference standards for determining of unknown ginsenosides and further suggesting of the metabolic markers. The elution order of 22 ginsenosides based on the type of aglycones, and the location and number of sugar chains can be used for the structural elucidation of unknown ginsenosides. This information could be used in a dereplication process for quick and efficient identification of ginsenoside derivatives in ginseng preparations. A dereplication approach helped the identification of the metabolic markers in the UPLC-QTOF/MS chromatograms during the conversion process with multivariate analyses, including principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) plots. These metabolic markers were identified by comparing with the dereplication information of the reference standards of 22 ginsenosides, or they were assigned using the pattern of the MS/MS fragmented ions. Consequently, the developed metabolic profiling approach using UPLC-QTOF/MS and multivariate analysis represents a new method for providing quality control as well as useful criteria for a similarity evaluation of the manufacturing process of ginseng preparations.

The re-emergence of natural products for drug discovery in the genomics era

Natural products have been a rich source of compounds for drug discovery. However, their use has diminished in the past two decades, in part because of technical barriers to screening natural products in high-throughput assays against molecular targets. Here, we review strategies for natural product screening that harness the recent technical advances that have reduced these barriers. We also assess the use of genomic and metabolomic approaches to augment traditional methods of studying natural products, and highlight recent examples of natural products in antimicrobial drug discovery and as inhibitors of protein-protein interactions. The growing appreciation of functional assays and phenotypic screens may further contribute to a revival of interest in natural products for drug discovery.

Saponins in the genus Panax L. (Araliaceae): a systematic review of their chemical diversity

The Panax genus is a crucial source of natural medicines that has benefited human health for a long time. Three valuable medicinal herbs, namely Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and Panax notoginseng, have received considerable interest due to their extensive application in clinical therapy, healthcare products, and as foods and food additives world-wide. Panax species are known to contain abundant levels of saponins, also dubbed ginsenosides, which refer to a series of dammarane or oleanane type triterpenoid glycosides. These saponins exhibit modulatory effects to the central nervous system and beneficial effects to patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases, and also have anti-diabetic and anti-tumor properties. To the end of 2012, at least 289 saponins were reported from eleven different Panax species. This comprehensive review describes the advances in the phytochemistry of the genus Panax for the period 1963-2012, based on the 134 cited references. The reported saponins can be classified into protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol, octillol, oleanolic acid, C17 side-chain varied, and miscellaneous subtypes, according to structural differences in sapogenins. The investigational history of Panax is also reviewed, with special attention being paid to the structural features of the six different subtypes, together with their (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopic characteristics which are useful for determining their structures and absolute configuration.

Chemical profiles and anticancer effects of saponin fractions of different polarity from the leaves of Panax notoginseng

AIM

To evaluate the chemical profiles and cytotoxic effects among the total saponin fraction (TSF), 25% ethanol fraction (25EF), 50% ethanol fraction (50EF), and 85% ethanol fraction (85EF) prepared by macroporous resin from the leaves of Panax notoginseng.

METHOD

The simultaneous determination of thirteen main saponins, as well as the chemical profiles of saponin fractions of different polarity, was made by HPLC-DAD and LC-ESI-MS(n) analysis. The cytotoxic effects were determined against KP4 cells (human pancreatic cancer), NCI-H727 cells (human lung cancer), HepG2 cells (human hepatocellular cancer), and SGC-7901 cells (human gastric adenocarcinoma).

RESULTS

Chemical analysis indicated that 85EF possessed the most abundant cytotoxic protopanaxadiol saponins, including the marker saponins F2, 20(R)-Rg3, 20(S)-Rg3, and Rh2. The MTT assay showed that 85EF also had the strongest cytotoxic effects among the four fractions. 25EF showed no anti-proliferative effects, while 50EF and TSF exhibited weak anti-proliferative activity.

CONCLUSION

From the aspect of comprehensive utilization of resources, 85EF, enriched with low polarity PPD group saponins, is a new alternative source of anticancer saponins, and a promising botanical preparation for further anticancer studies.

Ginsenoside F(2) induces apoptosis in humor gastric carcinoma cells through reactive oxygen species-mitochondria pathway and modulation of ASK-1/JNK signaling cascade in vitro and in vivo

Ginsenoside F(2) (F(2)) is a potential bioactive metabolite of major ginsenosides. The potential anti-cancer effect of F(2) in gastric cancer cells has not been appraised. This study investigated the effects of F(2) on the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We also investigated the in vitro and in vivo effects of F(2) on the downstream signaling pathways leading to apoptosis in human gastric cancer cells. The in vitro data revealed that F(2) induces ROS accumulation followed by a decrease in mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MTP), and the release of cytochrome c (cyto c), which induced the caspase-dependent apoptosis. Further assay indicated that modulation of ASK-1/JNK pathway contributes to apoptosis. In vivo, F(2) exhibits the obvious anti-cancer effect compared with cisplatin with no obvious toxicity. Jointly, these results suggest that F(2) induces apoptosis by causing an accumulation of ROS and activating the ASK-1/JNK signaling pathway. This provides further support for the use of F(2) as a novel anticancer therapeutic candidate.

Panax notoginseng attenuates experimental colitis in the azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium mouse model

Patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease are at a high risk of developing colorectal cancer. To assess the anticancer potential of botanicals, in this study, we evaluated the effects of Panax notoginseng on azoxymethane/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. One week after A/J mice received azoxymethane, the animals received DSS for 8 days or were supplemented with P. notoginseng extract, at 30 or 90 mg/kg. DSS-induced colitis was scored with the disease activity index. The severity of the inflammatory lesions was evaluated by a colon tissue histological assessment. The expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) were also explored. We observed that the effects of P. notoginseng on the reduction of colon inflammation, expressed in disease activity index score, were in a dose-related manner (p < 0.01). P. notoginseng inhibited the reduction of the colon length and the loss of bodyweight in dose-related manner (all p < 0.05). The histological assessment of the colitis and inflammatory-related immunohistochemical data also supported the pharmacological observations. Our data suggest that P. notoginseng is a promising candidate in preventing and treating colitis and inflammation-associated colon carcinogenesis.

Recent methodology in ginseng analysis

As much as the popularity of ginseng in herbal prescriptions or remedies, ginseng has become the focus of research in many scientific fields. Analytical methodologies for ginseng, referred to as ginseng analysis hereafter, have been developed for bioactive component discovery, phytochemical profiling, quality control, and pharmacokinetic studies. This review summarizes the most recent advances in ginseng analysis in the past half-decade including emerging techniques and analytical trends. Ginseng analysis includes all of the leading analytical tools and serves as a representative model for the analytical research of herbal medicines.