LC-MS/MS-based quantification of clinically relevant intestinal uptake and efflux transporter proteins

Quantification of drug metabolising enzymes and transporter proteins in the paediatric duodenum via LC-MS/MS proteomics using a QconCAT technique

Characterising the small intestine absorptive membrane is essential to enable prediction of the systemic exposure of oral formulations. In particular, the ontogeny of key intestinal Drug Metabolising Enzymes and Transporter (DMET) proteins involved in drug disposition needs to be elucidated to allow for accurate prediction of the PK profile of drugs in the paediatric cohort. Using pinch biopsies from the paediatric duodenum (n = 36; aged 11 months to 15 years), the abundance of 21 DMET proteins and two enterocyte markers were quantified via LC-MS/MS. An established LCMS nanoflow method was translated to enable analysis on a microflow LC system, and a new stable-isotope-labelled QconCAT standard developed to enable quantification of these proteins. Villin-1 was used to standardise abundancy values. The observed abundancies and ontogeny profiles, agreed with adult LC-MS/MS-based data, and historic paediatric data obtained via western blotting. A linear trend with age was observed for duodenal CYP3A4 and CES2 only. As this work quantified peptides on a pinch biopsy coupled with a microflow method, future studies using a wider population range are very feasible. Furthermore, this DMET ontogeny data can be used to inform paediatric PBPK modelling and to enhance the understanding of oral drug absorption and gut bioavailability in paediatric populations.

Novel In Vitro Models for Cell Differentiation and Drug Transport Studies of the Human Intestine

The most common in vitro model for absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) purposes is currently the Caco-2 cell line. However, clear differences in gene and protein expression towards the small intestine and an, at best, fair prediction accuracy of intestinal drug absorption restrict the usefulness of a model for intestinal epithelial cells. To overcome these limitations, we evaluated a panel of low-passaged patient-derived colorectal cancer cell lines of the HROC collection concerning similarities to small intestinal epithelial cells and their potential to predict intestinal drug absorption. After initial screening of a larger panel, ten cell lines with confluent outgrowth and long-lasting barrier-forming potential were further characterized in close detail. Tight junctional complexes and microvilli structures were detected in all lines, anda higher degree of differentiation was observed in 5/10 cell lines. All lines expressed multiple transporter molecules, with the expression levels in three lines being close to those of small intestinal epithelial cells. Compared with the Caco-2 model, three HROC lines demonstrated both higher similarity to jejunal epithelial tissue cells and higher regulatory potential of relevant drug transporters. In summary, these lines would be better-suited human small intestinal epithelium models for basic and translational research, especially for ADME studies.

A simple LC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of drug metabolic enzymes

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to develop a LC-MS/MS method for the quantitation of seven cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes.

METHODS

A high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed using multiple reaction monitoring mode with positive electrospray ionization. The method was validated with selectivity, linearity, stability, accuracy and precious. In addition, the abundance of seven CYP450 enzymes in human liver microsomes and CYP3A4 in placenta were determined using the current method.

RESULTS

The linear range for CYP1A2, CYP2B6 and CYP2C8 was 0.036-3.6 nM and for CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 was 0.090-9.0 nM. No interference was found between the blank matrix and each specific peptides. The accuracy and precious results were in accord with the requirement of analytical methods for biological samples in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. In addition, the peptides were stable under current stability conditions. The content of CYP3A4 in placenta and the seven CYP450 enzymes in human liver microsomes were accurately quantified.

CONCLUSION

The developed method is sensitive and specific and can be applied to the quantification of enzymes abundance in different human derived samples like placenta and liver microsomes.

Surrogate peptide selection and internal standardization for accurate quantification of endogenous proteins

Relative quantification techniques have dominated the field of proteomics. However, biomarker discovery, mathematical model development and studies on transporter-mediated drug disposition still need absolute quantification of proteins. The quality of data of trace-level protein quantification is solely dependent on the specific selection of surrogate peptides. Selection of surrogate peptides has a major impact on the accuracy of the method. In this article, the advanced approaches for selection of surrogate peptides, which can provide absolute quantification of the proteins are discussed. In addition, internal standardization, which accounts for variations in the quantitation process to achieve absolute protein quantification is discussed.

Gene Expression and Protein Abundance of Nuclear Receptors in Human Intestine and Liver: A New Application for Mass Spectrometry-Based Targeted Proteomics

Background: Unwanted drug-drug interactions (DDIs), as caused by the upregulation of clinically relevant drug metabolizing enzymes and transporter proteins in intestine and liver, have the potential to threaten the therapeutic efficacy and safety of drugs. The molecular mechanism of this undesired but frequently occurring scenario of polypharmacy is based on the activation of nuclear receptors such as the pregnane X receptor (PXR) or the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) by perpetrator agents such as rifampin, phenytoin or St. John’s wort. However, the expression pattern of nuclear receptors in human intestine and liver remains uncertain, which makes it difficult to predict the extent of potential DDIs. Thus, it was the aim of this study to characterize the gene expression and protein abundance of clinically relevant nuclear receptors, i.e., the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), CAR, farnesoid X receptor (FXR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α), PXR and small heterodimer partner (SHP), in the aforementioned organs. Methods: Gene expression analysis was performed by quantitative real-time PCR of jejunal, ileal, colonic and liver samples from eight human subjects. In parallel, a targeted proteomic method was developed and validated in order to determine the respective protein amounts of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver samples. The LC-MS/MS method was validated according to the current bioanalytical guidelines and met the criteria regarding linearity (0.1–50 nmol/L), within-day and between-day accuracy and precision, as well as the stability criteria. Results: The developed method was successfully validated and applied to determine the abundance of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver samples. Gene expression and protein abundance data demonstrated marked differences in human intestine and liver. On the protein level, only AhR and HNF4α could be detected in gut and liver, which corresponds to their highest gene expression. In transfected cell lines, PXR and CAR could be quantified. Conclusions: The substantially different expression pattern of nuclear receptors in human intestinal and liver tissue may explain the different extent of unwanted DDIs in the dependence on the administration route of drugs.

Protein Abundance of Drug Transporters in Human Hepatitis C Livers

Transmembrane drug transport in hepatocytes is one of the major determinants of drug pharmacokinetics. In the present study, ABC transporters (P-gp, MRP1, MRP2, MRP3, MRP4, BCRP, and BSEP) and SLC transporters (MCT1, NTCP, OAT2, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1, OCT1, and OCT3) were quantified for protein abundance (LC-MS/MS) and mRNA levels (qRT-PCR) in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected liver samples from the Child-Pugh class A (n = 30), B (n = 21), and C (n = 7) patients. Protein levels of BSEP, MRP3, MCT1, OAT2, OATP1B3, and OCT3 were not significantly affected by HCV infection. P-gp, MRP1, BCRP, and OATP1B3 protein abundances were upregulated, whereas those of MRP2, MRP4, NTCP, OATP2B1, and OCT1 were downregulated in all HCV samples. The observed changes started to be seen in the Child-Pugh class A livers, i.e., upregulation of P-gp and MRP1 and downregulation of MRP2, MRP4, BCRP, and OATP1B3. In the case of NTCP, OATP2B1, and OCT1, a decrease in the protein levels was observed in the class B livers. In the class C livers, no other changes were noted than those in the class A and B patients. The results of the study demonstrate that drug transporter protein abundances are affected by the functional state of the liver in hepatitis C patients.

Sex Differences in Intestinal P-Glycoprotein Expression in Wistar versus Sprague Dawley Rats

Wistar and Sprague Dawley are the most common strains of rat used in pharmaceutical research and are used interchangeably in pre-clinical drug development. No studies have assessed whether Wistar and Sprague Dawley rats are equivalent in the gastrointestinal factors that influence oral drug absorption, specifically in relation to intestinal transporters. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) are two reliable methods for quantifying intestinal protein levels with their own distinct advantages and limitations. In this study, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a key efflux transporter, was quantified using ELISA and LC-MS/MS along the complete intestinal tract of male and female Wistar and Sprague Dawley rats. This work presents that Sprague Dawley rats have innately higher baseline P-gp expression than Wistar rats. Significant sex differences in P-gp expression were identified in the jejunum, ileum and colon between male and female Wistar rats using both techniques, with males exhibiting higher P-gp levels. Sprague Dawley rats showed no sex differences in P-gp expression through ELISA and LC-MS/MS. Both methods demonstrated similar trends for P-gp quantification, but ELISA could offer faster data acquisition. Our findings report significant sex differences between the strains and highlight that Wistar and Sprague Dawley rats are not equivalent in their P-gp expression. As humans exhibit distinct sex differences in intestinal P-gp levels, Wistar rats may therefore be a more suitable pre-clinical animal strain to model oral drug absorption of P-gp substrates in male and female subjects.

Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling of Cefadroxil in Mouse, Rat, and Human to Predict Concentration-Time Profile at Infected Tissue

The aim of this study was to develop physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models capable of simulating cefadroxil concentrations in plasma and tissues in mouse, rat, and human. PBPK models in this study consisted of 14 tissues and 2 blood compartments. They were established using measured tissue to plasma partition coefficient (K_p) in mouse and rat, absolute expression levels of hPEPT1 along the entire length of the human intestine, and the transporter kinetic parameters. The PBPK models also assumed that all the tissues were well-stirred compartments with perfusion rate limitations, and the ratio of the concentration in tissue to the unbound concentration in plasma is identical across species. These PBPK models were validated strictly by a series of observed plasma concentration–time profile data. The average fold error (AFE) and absolute average fold error (AAFE) values were all less than 2. The models’ rationality and accuracy were further demonstrated by the almost consistent V_ss calculated by the PBPK model and noncompartmental method, as well as the good allometric scaling relationship of V_ss and CL. The model suggests that hPEPT1 is the major transporter responsible for the oral absorption of cefadroxil in human, and the plasma concentration–time profiles of cefadroxil were not sensitive to dissolution rate faster than T_85% = 2 h. The cefadroxil PBPK model in human is reliable and can be used to predict concentration–time profile at infected tissue. It may be useful for dose selection and informative decision-making during clinical trials and dosage form design of cefadroxil and provide a reference for the PBPK model establishment of hPEPT1 substrate.

Expression and Functional Contribution of Different Organic Cation Transporters to the Cellular Uptake of Doxorubicin into Human Breast Cancer and Cardiac Tissue

Doxorubicin is a frequently used anticancer drug to treat many types of tumors, such as breast cancer or bronchial carcinoma. The clinical use of doxorubicin is limited by its poorly predictable cardiotoxicity, the reasons of which are so far not fully understood. The drug is a substrate of several efflux transporters such as P-gp or BCRP and was recently reported to be a substrate of cation uptake transporters. To evaluate the potential role of transporter proteins in the accumulation of doxorubicin at its site of action (e.g., mammary carcinoma cells) or adverse effects (e.g., heart muscle cells), we studied the expression of important uptake and efflux transporters in human breast cancer and cardiac tissue, and investigated the affinity of doxorubicin to the identified transporters. The cellular uptake studies on doxorubicin were performed with OATP1A2*1, OATP1A2*2, and OATP1A2*3-overexpressing HEK293 cells, as well as OCT1-, OCT2-, and OCT3- overexpressing MDCKII cells. To assess the contribution of transporters to the cytotoxic effect of doxorubicin, we determined the cell viability in the presence and absence of transporter inhibitors in different cell lines. Several transporters, including P-gp, BCRP, OCT1, OCT3, and OATP1A2 were expressed in human heart and/or breast cancer tissue. Doxorubicin could be identified as a substrate of OCT1, OCT2, OCT3, and OATP1A2. The cellular uptake into cells expressing genetic OATP1A2 variants was markedly reduced and correlated well with the increased cellular viability. Inhibition of OATP1A2 (naringin) and OCT transporters (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium) resulted in a significant decrease of doxorubicin-mediated cytotoxicity in cell lines expressing the respective transporters. Similarly, the excipient Cremophor EL significantly inhibited the OCT1-3- and OATP1A2-mediated cellular uptake and attenuated the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin. In conclusion, genetic and environmental-related variability in the expression and function of these transporters may contribute to the substantial variability seen in terms of doxorubicin efficacy and toxicity.

A simple unlabeled human chorionic gonadotropin biosensor based on a peptide aptamer

As an essential biochemical indicator in the fields of pregnancy and oncology, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) can be evaluated using colloidal gold immunochromatographic paper and quantified using a biochemical analyzer based on the principle of the antibody sandwich method. In view of the inaccuracy of the former and the complication of the latter, this study constructed an accurate, sensitive and simple unlabeled biosensor based on peptide aptamer CGGGPPLRINRHILTR for HCG detection. Molecular Operating Environment (MOE) was used to simulate the aptamer and protein docking, and western blot (WB) was used to verify the binding effect and ratio. The peptide aptamer was characterized and was then reduced with tris-(2-carboxyethyl)-phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP). After electrochemical deposition of chloroauric acid on the screen-printed electrode (SPE), the aptamer was self-assembled on the electrode surface under optimal conditions. The active site of the electrode surface was blocked with 6-mercapto-1-hexanol (MCH) and BSA. The electrochemical impedance spectrum (EIS) was used to quantify HCG in the matrix. Showing a good linear relationship in the range of 5-1500 mIU mL^-1, with a detection limit of 1 mIU mL^-1, the biosensor remained stable at room temperature for 14 days. Because of its small size, stability, sensitivity and accuracy, this biosensor has great potential to become a portable diagnostic device for HCG.

Ontogeny of Small Intestinal Drug Transporters and Metabolizing Enzymes Based on Targeted Quantitative Proteomics

Most drugs are administered to children orally. An information gap remains on the protein abundance of small intestinal drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and drug transporters (DTs) across the pediatric age range, which hinders precision dosing in children. To explore age-related differences in DMEs and DTs, surgical leftover intestinal tissues from pediatric and adult jejunum and ileum were collected and analyzed by targeted quantitative proteomics for apical sodium-bile acid transporter, breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1), multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) 2, MRP3, organic anion-transporting polypeptide 2B1, organic cation transporter 1, peptide transporter 1 (PEPT1), CYP2C19, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 1A1, UGT1A10, and UGT2B7. Samples from 58 children (48 ileums, 10 jejunums, age range: 8 weeks to 17 years) and 16 adults (8 ileums, 8 jejunums) were analyzed. When comparing age groups, BCRP, MDR1, PEPT1, and UGT1A1 abundance was significantly higher in adult ileum as compared with the pediatric ileum. Jejunal BCRP, MRP2, UGT1A1, and CYP3A4 abundance was higher in the adults compared with children 0-2 years of age. Examining the data on a continuous age scale showed that PEPT1 and UGT1A1 abundance was significantly higher, whereas MCT1 and UGT2B7 abundance was lower in adult ileum as compared with the pediatric ileum. Our data contribute to the deeper understanding of the ontogeny of small intestinal drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters and shows DME-, DT-, and intestinal location-specific, age-related changes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This is the first study that describes the ontogeny of small intestinal DTs and DMEs in human using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry-based targeted quantitative proteomics. The current analysis provides a detailed picture about the maturation of DT and DME abundances in the human jejunum and ileum. The presented results supply age-related DT and DME abundance data for building more accurate PBPK models that serve to support safer and more efficient drug dosing regimens for the pediatric population.

Comparative Hepatic and Intestinal Efflux Transport of Statins

Previous studies have shown that lipid-lowering statins are transported by various ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. However, because of varying methods, it is difficult to compare the transport profiles of statins. Therefore, we investigated the transport of 10 statins or statin metabolites by six ABC transporters using human embryonic kidney cell-derived membrane vesicles. The transporter protein expression levels in the vesicles were quantified with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and used to scale the measured clearances to tissue levels. In our study, apically expressed breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) transported atorvastatin, fluvastatin, pitavastatin, and rosuvastatin. Multidrug resistance-associated protein 3 (MRP3) transported atorvastatin, fluvastatin, pitavastatin, and, to a smaller extent, pravastatin. MRP4 transported fluvastatin and rosuvastatin. The scaled clearances suggest that BCRP contributes to 87%-91% and 84% of the total active efflux of rosuvastatin in the small intestine and the liver, respectively. For atorvastatin, the corresponding values for P-gp-mediated efflux were 43%-79% and 66%, respectively. MRP3, on the other hand, may contribute to 23%-26% and 25%-37% of total active efflux of atorvastatin, fluvastatin, and pitavastatin in jejunal enterocytes and liver hepatocytes, respectively. These data indicate that BCRP may play an important role in limiting the intestinal absorption and facilitating the biliary excretion of rosuvastatin and that P-gp may restrict the intestinal absorption and mediate the biliary excretion of atorvastatin. Moreover, the basolateral MRP3 may enhance the intestinal absorption and sinusoidal hepatic efflux of several statins. Taken together, the data show that statins differ considerably in their efflux transport profiles. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This study characterized and compared the transport of atorvastatin, fluvastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and simvastatin acid and four atorvastatin metabolites by six ABC transporters (BCRP, MRP2, MRP3, MRP4, MRP8, P-gp). Based on in vitro findings and protein abundance data, the study concludes that BCRP, MRP3, and P-gp have a major impact in the efflux of various statins. Together with in vitro metabolism, uptake transport, and clinical data, our findings are applicable for use in comparative systems pharmacology modeling of statins.

A Whole-Body Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model Characterizing Interplay of OCTs and MATEs in Intestine, Liver and Kidney to Predict Drug-Drug Interactions of Metformin with Perpetrators

Transmembrane transport of metformin is highly controlled by transporters including organic cation transporters (OCTs), plasma membrane monoamine transporter (PMAT), and multidrug/toxin extrusions (MATEs). Hepatic OCT1, intestinal OCT3, renal OCT2 on tubule basolateral membrane, and MATE1/2-K on tubule apical membrane coordinately work to control metformin disposition. Drug–drug interactions (DDIs) of metformin occur when co-administrated with perpetrators via inhibiting OCTs or MATEs. We aimed to develop a whole-body physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model characterizing interplay of OCTs and MATEs in the intestine, liver, and kidney to predict metformin DDIs with cimetidine, pyrimethamine, trimethoprim, ondansetron, rabeprazole, and verapamil. Simulations showed that co-administration of perpetrators increased plasma exposures to metformin, which were consistent with clinic observations. Sensitivity analysis demonstrated that contributions of the tested factors to metformin DDI with cimetidine are gastrointestinal transit rate > inhibition of renal OCT2 ≈ inhibition of renal MATEs > inhibition of intestinal OCT3 > intestinal pH > inhibition of hepatic OCT1. Individual contributions of transporters to metformin disposition are renal OCT2 ≈ renal MATEs > intestinal OCT3 > hepatic OCT1 > intestinal PMAT. In conclusion, DDIs of metformin with perpetrators are attributed to integrated effects of inhibitions of these transporters.

Quantification of P-Glycoprotein in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Humans and Rodents: Methodology, Gut Region, Sex, and Species Matter

Intestinal efflux transporters affect the gastrointestinal processing of many drugs but further data on their intestinal expression levels are required. Relative mRNA expression and relative and absolute protein expression data of transporters are commonly measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blot and mass spectrometry-based targeted proteomics techniques. All of these methods, however, have their own strengths and limitations, and therefore, validation for optimized quantification methods is needed. As such, the identification of the most appropriate technique is necessary to effectively translate preclinical findings to first-in-human trials. In this study, the mRNA expression and protein levels of the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) in jejunal and ileal epithelia of 30 male and female human subjects, and the duodenal, jejunal, ileal and colonic tissues in 48 Wistar rats were quantified using RT-PCR, Western blot and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A similar sex difference was observed in the expression of small intestinal P-gp in humans and Wistar rats where P-gp was higher in males than females with an increasing trend from the proximal to the distal parts in both species. A strong positive linear correlation was determined between the Western blot data and LC-MS/MS data in the small intestine of humans (R² = 0.85). Conflicting results, however, were shown in rat small intestinal and colonic P-gp expression between the techniques (R² = 0.29 and 0.05, respectively). In RT-PCR and Western blot, an internal reference protein is experimentally required; here, beta-actin was used which is innately variable along the intestinal tract. Quantification via LC-MS/MS can provide data on P-gp expression without the need for an internal reference protein and consequently, can give higher confidence on the expression levels of P-gp along the intestinal tract. Overall, these findings highlight similar trends between the species and suggest that the Wistar rat is an appropriate preclinical animal model to predict the oral drug absorption of P-gp substrates in the human small intestine.

Organic Cation Transporter 1 an Intestinal Uptake Transporter: Fact or Fiction?

Intestinal transporter proteins are known to affect the pharmacokinetics and in turn the efficacy and safety of many orally administered drugs in a clinically relevant manner. This knowledge is especially well-established for intestinal ATP-binding cassette transporters such as P-gp and BCRP. In contrast to this, information about intestinal uptake carriers is much more limited although many hydrophilic or ionic drugs are not expected to undergo passive diffusion but probably require specific uptake transporters. A transporter which is controversially discussed with respect to its expression, localization and function in the human intestine is the organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1). This review article provides an up-to-date summary on the available data from expression analysis as well as functional studies in vitro, animal findings and clinical observations. The current evidence suggests that OCT1 is expressed in the human intestine in small amounts (on gene and protein levels), while its cellular localization in the apical or basolateral membrane of the enterocytes remains to be finally defined, but functional data point to a secretory function of the transporter at the basolateral membrane. Thus, OCT1 should not be considered as a classical uptake transporter in the intestine but rather as an intestinal elimination pathway for cationic compounds from the systemic circulation.

Quantification of Proteins Involved in Intestinal Epithelial Handling of Xenobiotics

The intestinal epithelium represents a natural barrier against harmful xenobiotics, while facilitating the uptake of nutrients and other substances. Understanding the interaction of chemicals with constituents of the intestinal epithelium and their fate in the body requires quantitative measurement of relevant proteins in in vitro systems and intestinal epithelium. Recent studies have highlighted the mismatch between messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein abundance for several drug‐metabolizing enzymes and transporters in the highly dynamic environment of the intestinal epithelium; mRNA abundances cannot therefore be used as a proxy for protein abundances in the gut, necessitating direct measurements. The objective was to determine the expression of a wide range proteins pertinent to metabolism and disposition of chemicals and nutrients in the intestinal epithelium. Ileum and jejunum biopsy specimens were obtained from 16 patients undergoing gastrointestinal elective surgery. Mucosal fractions were prepared and analyzed using targeted and global proteomic approaches. A total of 29 enzymes, 32 transporters, 6 tight junction proteins, 2 adhesion proteins, 1 alkaline phosphatase, 1 thioredoxin, 5 markers, and 1 regulatory protein were quantified—60 for the first time. The global proteomic method identified a further 5,222 proteins, which are retained as an open database for interested parties to explore. This study significantly expands our knowledge of a wide array of proteins important for xenobiotic handling in the intestinal epithelium. Quantitative systems biology models will benefit from the novel systems data generated in the present study and the translation path offered for in vitro to in vivo translation.

Organic Cation Transporters in Health and Disease

The organic cation transporters (OCTs) OCT1, OCT2, OCT3, novel OCT (OCTN)1, OCTN2, multidrug and toxin exclusion (MATE)1, and MATE kidney-specific 2 are polyspecific transporters exhibiting broadly overlapping substrate selectivities. They transport organic cations, zwitterions, and some uncharged compounds and operate as facilitated diffusion systems and/or antiporters. OCTs are critically involved in intestinal absorption, hepatic uptake, and renal excretion of hydrophilic drugs. They modulate the distribution of endogenous compounds such as thiamine, L-carnitine, and neurotransmitters. Sites of expression and functions of OCTs have important impact on energy metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of drugs, and on drug-drug interactions. In this work, an overview about the human OCTs is presented. Functional properties of human OCTs, including identified substrates and inhibitors of the individual transporters, are described. Sites of expression are compiled, and data on regulation of OCTs are presented. In addition, genetic variations of OCTs are listed, and data on their impact on transport, drug treatment, and diseases are reported. Moreover, recent data are summarized that indicate complex drug-drug interaction at OCTs, such as allosteric high-affinity inhibition of transport and substrate dependence of inhibitor efficacies. A hypothesis about the molecular mechanism of polyspecific substrate recognition by OCTs is presented that is based on functional studies and mutagenesis experiments in OCT1 and OCT2. This hypothesis provides a framework to imagine how observed complex drug-drug interactions at OCTs arise. Finally, preclinical in vitro tests that are performed by pharmaceutical companies to identify interaction of novel drugs with OCTs are discussed. Optimized experimental procedures are proposed that allow a gapless detection of inhibitory and transported drugs.

Role of membrane-embedded drug efflux ABC transporters in the cancer chemotherapy

One of the major problems being faced by researchers and clinicians in leukemic treatment is the development of multidrug resistance (MDR) which restrict the action of several tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). MDR is a major obstacle to the success of cancer chemotherapy. The mechanism of MDR involves active drug efflux transport of ABC superfamily of proteins such as Pglycoprotein (P-gp/ABCB1), multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2/ABCC2), and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2) that weaken the effectiveness of chemotherapeutics and negative impact on the future of anticancer therapy. In this review, the authors aim to provide an overview of various multidrug resistance (MDR) mechanisms observed in cancer cells as well as the various strategies developed to overcome these MDR. Extensive studies have been carried out since last several years to enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy by defeating these MDR mechanisms with the use of novel anticancer drugs that could escape from the efflux reaction, MDR modulators or chemosensitizers, multifunctional nanotechnology, and RNA interference (RNAi) therapy.

Mass Spectrometry of Human Transporters

Transporters are key to understanding how an individual will respond to a particular dose of a drug. Two patients with similar systemic concentrations may have quite different local concentrations of a drug at the required site. The transporter profile of any individual depends upon a variety of genetic and environmental factors, including genotype, age, and diet status. Robust models (virtual patients) are therefore required and these models are data hungry. Necessary data include quantitative transporter profiles at the relevant organ. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is currently the most powerful method available for obtaining this information. Challenges include sourcing the tissue, isolating the hydrophobic membrane-embedded transporter proteins, preparing the samples for MS (including proteolytic digestion), choosing appropriate quantification methodology, and optimizing the LC-MS/MS conditions. Great progress has been made with all of these, especially within the last few years, and is discussed here.

Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-Based Proteomics of Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes and Transporters

Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based proteomics is a powerful tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in biological samples, outperforming conventional antibody-based methods in many aspects. LC-MS/MS-based proteomics studies have revealed the protein abundances of many drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters (DMETs) in tissues relevant to drug metabolism and disposition. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated marked interindividual variability in DMET protein expression, suggesting that varied DMET function is an important contributing factor for interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of medications. Moreover, differential DMET expression profiles were observed across different species and in vitro models. Therefore, caution must be exercised when extrapolating animal and in vitro DMET proteomics findings to humans. In recent years, DMET proteomics has been increasingly utilized for the development of physiologically based pharmacokinetic models, and DMET proteins have also been proposed as biomarkers for prediction of the PK and PD of the corresponding substrate drugs. In sum, despite the existence of many challenges in the analytical technology and data analysis methods of LC-MS/MS-based proteomics, DMET proteomics holds great potential to advance our understanding of PK behavior at the individual level and to optimize treatment regimens via the DMET protein biomarker-guided precision pharmacotherapy.

OATP1A2 and OATP2B1 Are Interacting with Dopamine-Receptor Agonists and Antagonists

Interaction with the dopaminergic system in the central nervous system is either therapeutically intended or it is a side effect. In both cases, dopamine-receptor agonists (DRA) like the ergoline derivative bromocriptine and dopamine-receptor antagonists (DRAn) like metoclopramide have to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP) 1A2 and 2B1 are cellular uptake carriers for a variety of endogenous and xenobiotic compounds. As both transporters are expressed in endothelial cells of the BBB, the aim of the present study was to determine whether the DRA bromocriptine, cabergoline, and pergolide and the DRAn metoclopramide and domperidone are interacting with OATP1A2 and 2B1 and could therefore be candidate genes modifying wanted and unwanted effects of these drugs. Localization of both transporters in the brain was confirmed using LC-MS/MS and immunofluorescence stainings. For the functional studies, MDCKII cells stably expressing OATP1A2 or 2B1 were used. Initial interaction studies with the well-characterized transporter substrate estrone 3-sulfate revealed that all tested compounds except pergolide inhibit the transport function of both proteins with the most potent effect for bromocriptine (IC₅₀ = 2.2 μM (OATP1A2) and IC₅₀ = 2.5 μM (OATP2B1)). Further studies using the indirect competitive counterflow method identified bromocriptine, cabergoline, and domperidone as substrates of both transporters, whereas metoclopramide was only transported by OATP1A2. These findings were verified for domperidone by direct measurements using its tritium-labeled form as a tracer. Moreover, the transporter-mediated uptake of this compound was sensitive to the OATP1A2 and OATP2B1 inhibitor naringin. In conclusion, this study suggests that OATP1A2 and 2B1 may play a role in the uptake of DR agonists and antagonists into the brain.

The orphan solute carrier SLC10A7 is a novel negative regulator of intracellular calcium signaling

SLC10A7 represents an orphan member of the Solute Carrier Family SLC10. Recently, mutations in the human SLC10A7 gene were associated with skeletal dysplasia, amelogenesis imperfecta, and decreased bone mineral density. However, the exact molecular function of SLC10A7 and the mechanisms underlying these pathologies are still unknown. For this reason, the role of SLC10A7 on intracellular calcium signaling was investigated. SLC10A7 protein expression was negatively correlated with store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) via the plasma membrane. Whereas SLC10A7 knockout HAP1 cells showed significantly increased calcium influx after thapsigargin, ionomycin and ATP/carbachol treatment, SLC10A7 overexpression reduced this calcium influx. Intracellular Ca²⁺ levels were higher in the SLC10A7 knockout cells and lower in the SLC10A7-overexpressing cells. The SLC10A7 protein co-localized with STIM1, Orai1, and SERCA2. Most of the previously described human SLC10A7 mutations had no effect on the calcium influx and thus were confirmed to be functionally inactive. In the present study, SLC10A7 was established as a novel negative regulator of intracellular calcium signaling that most likely acts via STIM1, Orai1 and/or SERCA2 inhibition. Based on this, SLC10A7 is suggested to be named as negative regulator of intracellular calcium signaling (in short: RCAS).

Effect of Food and an Animal's Sex on P-Glycoprotein Expression and Luminal Fluids in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Wistar Rats

The rat is one of the most commonly used animal models in pre-clinical studies. Limited information between the sexes and the effect of food consumption on the gastrointestinal (GI) physiology, however, is acknowledged or understood. This study aimed to investigate the potential sex differences and effect of food intake on the intestinal luminal fluid and the efflux membrane transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) along the intestinal tract of male and female Wistar rats. To characterise the intestinal luminal fluids, pH, surface tension, buffer capacity and osmolality were measured. Absolute P-gp expression along the intestinal tract was quantified via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In general, the characteristics of the luminal fluids were similar in male and female rats along the GI tract. In fasted male rats, the absolute P-gp expression gradually increased from the duodenum to ileum but decreased in the colon. A significant sex difference (p < 0.05) was identified in the jejunum where P-gp expression in males was 83% higher than in females. Similarly, ileal P-gp expression in male rats was approximately 58% higher than that of their female counterparts. Conversely, following food intake, a significant sex difference (p < 0.05) in P-gp expression was found but in a contrasting trend. Fed female rats expressed much higher P-gp levels than male rats with an increase of 77% and 34% in the jejunum and ileum, respectively. A deeper understanding of the effects of sex and food intake on the absorption of P-gp substrates can lead to an improved translation from pre-clinical animal studies into human pharmacokinetic studies.

Monocarboxylate Transporter 1 (MCT1) in Liver Pathology

Membrane monocarboxylate transporter 1 (SLC16A1/MCT1) plays an important role in hepatocyte homeostasis, as well as drug handling. However, there is no available information about the impact of liver pathology on the transporter levels and function. The study was aimed to quantify SLC16A1 mRNA (qRT-PCR) and MCT1 protein abundance (liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC¬¬–MS/MS)) in the livers of patients diagnosed, according to the standard clinical criteria, with hepatitis C, primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease (ALD), and autoimmune hepatitis. The stage of liver dysfunction was classified according to Child–Pugh score. Downregulation of SLC16A1/MCT1 levels was observed in all liver pathology states, significantly for ALD. The progression of liver dysfunction, from Child–Pugh class A to C, involved the gradual decline in SLC16A1 mRNA and MCT1 protein abundance, reaching a clinically significant decrease in class C livers. Reduced levels of MCT1 were associated with significant intracellular lactate accumulation. The MCT1 transcript and protein did not demonstrate significant correlations regardless of the liver pathology analyzed, as well as the disease stage, suggesting posttranscriptional regulation, and several microRNAs were found as potential regulators of MCT1 abundance. MCT1 membrane immunolocalization without cytoplasmic retention was observed in all studied liver pathologies. Overall, the study demonstrates that SLC16A1/MCT1 is involved in liver pathology, especially in ALD.

Quantitative Proteomics of Clinically Relevant Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes and Drug Transporters and Their Intercorrelations in the Human Small Intestine

The levels of drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) and transporter proteins in the human intestine are pertinent to determine oral drug bioavailability. Despite the paucity of reports on such measurements, it is well recognized that these values are essential for translating in vitro data on drug metabolism and transport to predict drug disposition in gut wall. In the current study, clinically relevant DMEs [cytochrome P450 (P450) and uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT)] and drug transporters were quantified in total mucosal protein preparations from the human jejunum (n = 4) and ileum (n = 12) using quantification concatemer–based targeted proteomics. In contrast to previous reports, UGT2B15 and organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1 (OATP1A2) were quantifiable in all our samples. Overall, no significant disparities in protein expression were observed between jejunum and ileum. Relative mRNA expression for drug transporters did not correlate with the abundance of their cognate protein, except for P-glycoprotein 1 (P-gp) and organic solute transporter subunit alpha (OST-α), highlighting the limitations of RNA as a surrogate for protein expression in dynamic tissues with high turnover. Intercorrelations were found within P450 [2C9-2C19 (P = 0.002, R² = 0.63), 2C9–2J2 (P = 0.004, R² = 0.40), 2D6-2J2 (P = 0.002, R² = 0.50)] and UGT [1A1-2B7 (P = 0.02, R² = 0.87)] family of enzymes. There were also correlations between P-gp and several other proteins [OST-α (P < 0.0001, R² = 0.77), UGT1A6 (P = 0.009, R² = 0.38), and CYP3A4 (P = 0.007, R² = 0.30)]. Incorporating such correlations into building virtual populations is crucial for obtaining plausible characteristics of simulated individuals.

Value of quantifying ABC transporters by mass spectrometry and impact on in vitro-to-in vivo prediction of transporter-mediated drug-drug interactions of rivaroxaban

ABC transporters, such as P-gp and BCRP, are involved in rivaroxaban pharmacokinetics and can lead to drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Investigations of the victim role for rivaroxaban and transporter-mediated DDI are commonly performed using in vitro models. However, interpretation of rivaroxaban efflux transport and DDI studies in cell models may be influenced by P-gp and BCRP transporter abundance. This study aimed to develop an LC-MS/MS quantification method for assessing the relationship between transporter expression and functionality in Caco-2_ATCC, Caco-2_ECACC, MDCK-MDR1, MDCK-BCRP cell models. First, the relative and absolute quantities of the transporters were determined by LC-MS/MS. P-gp and BCRP expression was then confirmed by western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. Finally, P-gp and BCRP functional activities and half-inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) of two specific inhibitors (verapamil and ko143) were determined by bidirectional transport experiments. P-gp and BCRP protein expression was detected at the cell membrane and was greater in the respective transfected models. Efflux ratios were correlated with P-gp and BCRP quantities. The lowest IC50s were obtained in the MDCK-MDR1 and MDCK-BCRP models for verapamil and ko143, respectively. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that LC-MS/MS can accurately quantify P-gp and BCRP efflux transporters and thereby improve the interpretation of transport data and in vitro-in vivo correlations.

Duodenum Intestine-Chip for preclinical drug assessment in a human relevant model

Induction of intestinal drug metabolizing enzymes can complicate the development of new drugs, owing to the potential to cause drug-drug interactions (DDIs) leading to changes in pharmacokinetics, safety and efficacy. The development of a human-relevant model of the adult intestine that accurately predicts CYP450 induction could help address this challenge as species differences preclude extrapolation from animals. Here, we combined organoids and Organs-on-Chips technology to create a human Duodenum Intestine-Chip that emulates intestinal tissue architecture and functions, that are relevant for the study of drug transport, metabolism, and DDI. Duodenum Intestine-Chip demonstrates the polarized cell architecture, intestinal barrier function, presence of specialized cell subpopulations, and in vivo relevant expression, localization, and function of major intestinal drug transporters. Notably, in comparison to Caco-2, it displays improved CYP3A4 expression and induction capability. This model could enable improved in vitro to in vivo extrapolation for better predictions of human pharmacokinetics and risk of DDIs.

Clinically Relevant OATP2B1 Inhibitors in Marketed Drug Space

OATP2B1 is an intestinal and hepatic drug uptake transporter. Intestinal OATP2B1 has been elucidated as the mechanism of unexpected clinical drug-drug interactions (DDIs), where drug exposure was unexpectedly decreased with unchanged half-life. Hepatic OATP2B1 may be an understudied clinical DDI mechanism. The aim of the present work was to understand the prevalence of clinically relevant intestinal and hepatic OATP2B1 inhibitors in marketed drug space. HEK293 cells stably overexpressing human OATP2B1 or vector control were generated and cultured for 72 h in a 96-well format. OATP2B1-mediated uptake of dibromofluorescein (DBF) was found to be optimal at 10 μM concentration and 30 min incubation time. A total of 294 drugs (top 300 marketed drugs, excluding biologics and restricted drugs, supplemented with ∼100 small-molecule drugs) were screened for OATP2B1 inhibition at 10 μM. Drugs demonstrating ≥50% inhibition in this screen were advanced for IC₅₀ determination, which was extrapolated to clinical intestinal and hepatic OATP2B1 inhibition as per 2017 FDA DDI guidance. Of the 294 drugs screened, 67 elicited ≥50% inhibition of OATP2B1-mediated DBF uptake at 10 μM screening concentration. For the 67 drugs flagged in the single-concentration inhibition screen, upon evaluation of a full concentration range, IC₅₀ values could be determined for 58 drugs. OATP2B1 IC₅₀ values established for these 58 drugs were extrapolated as potentially clinically relevant at the intestinal level for 38 orally administered drugs (I_gut/IC₅₀ ≥ 10), and 17 were flagged as potential clinical inhibitors of hepatic OATP2B1 uptake (1 + I_in,max,u/IC₅₀ ≥ 1.1). This analysis of 294 drugs demonstrated prevalence of clinically relevant intestinal and hepatic OATP2B1 inhibitors to be 13 and 6%, respectively. As OATP2B1-inhibitor drugs are not exceedingly rare, these results suggest that clinical OATP2B1 DDIs have been rarely observed because OATP2B1 is uncommonly the predominant determinant of drug disposition.

Protein Abundance of Clinically Relevant Drug Transporters in The Human Kidneys

Renal drug transporters such as the organic cation transporters (OCTs), organic anion transporters (OATs) and multidrug resistance proteins (MRPs) play an important role in the tubular secretion of many drugs influencing their efficacy and safety. However, only little is known about the distinct protein abundance of these transporters in human kidneys, and about the impact of age and gender as potential factors of inter-subject variability in their expression and function. The aim of this study was to determine the protein abundance of MDR1, MRP1-4, BCRP, OAT1-3, OCT2-3, MATE1, PEPT1/2, and ORCTL2 by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based targeted proteomics in a set of 36 human cortex kidney samples (20 males, 16 females; median age 53 and 55 years, respectively). OAT1 and 3, OCT2 and ORCTL2 were found to be most abundant renal SLC transporters while MDR1, MRP1 and MRP4 were the dominating ABC transporters. Only the expression levels of MDR1 and ORCTL2 were significantly higher abundant in older donors. Moreover, we found several significant correlations between different transporters, which may indicate their functional interplay in renal vectorial transport processes. Our data may contribute to a better understanding of the molecular processes determining renal excretion of drugs.

Preincubation With Everolimus and Sirolimus Reduces Organic Anion-Transporting Polypeptide (OATP)1B1- and 1B3-Mediated Transport Independently of mTOR Kinase Inhibition: Implication in Assessing OATP1B1- and OATP1B3-Mediated Drug-Drug Interactions

Organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATP)1B1 and OATP1B3 mediate hepatic uptake of many drugs including lipid-lowering statins. Current studies determined the OATP1B1/1B3-mediated drug-drug interaction (DDI) potential of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors, everolimus and sirolimus, using R-value and physiologically based pharmacokinetic models. Preincubation with everolimus and sirolimus significantly decreased OATP1B1/1B3-mediated transport even after washing and decreased inhibition constant values up to 8.3- and 2.9-fold for OATP1B1 and both 2.7-fold for OATP1B3, respectively. R-values of everolimus, but not sirolimus, were greater than the FDA-recommended cutoff value of 1.1. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models predict that everolimus and sirolimus have low OATP1B1/1B3-mediated DDI potential against pravastatin. OATP1B1/1B3-mediated transport was not affected by preincubation with INK-128 (10 μM, 1 h), which does however abolish mTOR kinase activity. The preincubation effects of everolimus and sirolimus on OATP1B1/1B3-mediated transport were similar in cells before preincubation with vehicle control or INK-128, suggesting that inhibition of mTOR activity is not a prerequisite for the preincubation effects observed for everolimus and sirolimus. Nine potential phosphorylation sites of OATP1B1 were identified by phosphoproteomics; none of these are the predicted mTOR phosphorylation sites. We report the everolimus/sirolimus-preincubation-induced inhibitory effects on OATP1B1/1B3 and relatively low OATP1B1/1B3-mediated DDI potential of everolimus and sirolimus.

Membrane Transporters in Human Parotid Gland-Targeted Proteomics Approach

Salivary glands provide secretory functions, including secretion of xenobiotics and among them drugs. However, there is no published information about protein abundance of drug transporters measured using reliable protein quantification methods. Therefore, mRNA expression and absolute protein content of clinically relevant ABC (n = 6) and SLC (n = 15) family member transporters in the human parotid gland, using the qRT-PCR and liquid chromatography‒tandem mass spectrometry (LC−MS/MS) method, were studied. The abundance of nearly all measured proteins ranged between 0.04 and 0.45 pmol/mg (OCT3 > MRP1 > PEPT2 > MRP4 > MATE1 > BCRP). mRNAs of ABCB1, ABCC2, ABCC3, SLC10A1, SLC10A2, SLC22A1, SLC22A5, SLC22A6, SLC22A7, SLC22A8, SLCO1A2, SLCO1B1, SLCO1B3 and SLCO2B1 were not detected. The present study provides, for the first time, information about the protein abundance of membrane transporters in the human parotid gland, which could further be used to define salivary bidirectional transport (absorption and secretion) mechanisms of endogenous compounds and xenobiotics.

Transcriptional and Post-Transcriptional Regulation of Duodenal P-Glycoprotein and MRP2 in Healthy Human Subjects after Chronic Treatment with Rifampin and Carbamazepine

To predict the outcome of intestinal drug transporter induction on pharmacokinetics, signaling of the DNA message along with messenger RNA (mRNA) transcription and protein translation leading to transporter function must be understood. We quantified the gene expression of PXR and CAR, gene expression and protein abundance of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), multidrug-resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) and breast-cancer-resistance protein, the content of 754 microRNAs in human duodenal biopsy specimens, and pharmacokinetics of talinolol and ezetimibe before and after the treatment with rifampin and carbamazepine. Rifampin significantly induced the transcription of ABCB1 and ABCC2 and protein abundance of P-gp but not of MRP2. The abundance of P-gp was significantly correlated to the plasma exposure of ezetimibe and its glucuronide. Carbamazepine induced the mRNA expressions of CAR, ABCB1, and ABCC2 but did not elevate protein abundance. Using in silico prediction tools and luciferase reporter assays, microRNAs were identified that can contribute to ligand-specific regulation of intestinal drug transporters and different changes in drug disposition after induction with rifampin and carbamazepine.

Identification of the Catechin Uptake Transporter Responsible for Intestinal Absorption of Epigallocatechin Gallate in Mice

Many studies have shown that epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg) contribute to the health benefits of green tea, although its bioavailability is usually low. However, the mechanism underlying its intestinal absorption remains unclear. In human subjects, it has been reported that the bioavailability of EGCg increases after repeated oral catechin intake. We hypothesized that a certain uptake transporter was involved in this increase, and investigated a novel EGCg transporter. We first confirmed the increase in EGCg bioavailability in mice fed the catechin diet for two weeks. Then, in situ intestinal catechin infusion exhibited that the absorption of EGCg in the ileum was selectively increased in mice fed the catechin diet. A comprehensive analysis of plasma membrane proteins revealed 10 candidates for EGCg transporter, which were selectively increased in the ileum. EGCg uptake by a Xenopus laevis oocyte expressed with respective transporter revealed that oocytes microinjected with DTDST cRNA exhibited significantly higher EGCg uptake. Furthermore, uptake of EGCg by CHO-K1 cells stably expressing DTDST was significantly higher than that by mock cells, which was nullified by treating with a DTDST inhibitor. In conclusion, this study identified DTDST as a novel intestinal EGCg transporter that is upregulated after repeated oral catechin intake.

The reference liver - ABC and SLC drug transporters in healthy donor and metastatic livers

BACKGROUND

Analysis of results and conclusions in studies dedicated to pathology of the liver are usually based on comparison of pathological liver specimens and control/reference (considered as healthy) tissues. There are two main sources of the control liver samples used as the reference livers, i.e. deceased organ donor livers and non-tumorous tissue from metastatic livers, which are also applied for drug transporter investigations. However, no information has yet been published on drug transporters in these two major types of reference livers.

METHODS

We explored ABC (P-gp, MRP1, MRP2, MRP3, MRP4, BCRP, BSEP) and SLC (NTCP, MCT1, OCT1, OCT3, OAT2, OATP1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1) family transporters expression (qPCR) and protein abundance (LC-MS/MS) in healthy donors (n = 9) and metastatic (n = 13) livers.

RESULTS

The analysis of mRNA content revealed significant differences in ABCB11, ABCC1, ABCG2, SLC10A1, SLC16A1, SLCO1B1 and SLCO2B1 gene expression between livers from organ donors and patients who underwent surgical resection of metastatic tumors. The protein abundance of NTCP was significantly higher, whereas of P-gp significantly lower in non-tumorous tissues from metastatic livers. Greater inter-individual variability in protein abundance of all studied transporters in subjects with metastatic colon cancer was also observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that final conclusions in liver pathology studies may depend on the reference liver tissue used, especially in gene expression studies.

Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptides: Emerging Roles in Cancer Pharmacology

The organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) are a superfamily of drug transporters involved in the uptake and disposition of a wide array of structurally divergent endogenous and exogenous substrates, including steroid hormones, bile acids, and commonly used drugs, such as anti-infectives, antihypertensives, and cholesterol lowering agents. In the past decade, OATPs, primarily OATP1A2, OATP1B1, and OATP1B3, have emerged as potential mediators of chemotherapy disposition, including drugs such as methotrexate, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, irinotecan and its important metabolite 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin, and certain tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Furthermore, OATP family members are polymorphic and numerous studies have shown OATP variants to have differential uptake, disposition, and/or pharmacokinetics of numerous drug substrates with important implications for interindividual differences in efficacy and toxicity. Additionally, certain OATPs have been found to be overexpressed in a variety of human solid tumors, including breast, liver, colon, pancreatic, and ovarian cancers, suggesting potential roles for OATPs in tumor development and progression and as novel targets for cancer therapy. This review focuses on the emerging roles for selected OATPs in cancer pharmacology, including preclinical and clinical studies suggesting roles in chemotherapy disposition, the pharmacogenetics of OATPs in cancer therapy, and OATP overexpression in various tumor tissues with implications for OATPs as therapeutic targets.

Lipolysis-Permeation Setup for Simultaneous Study of Digestion and Absorption in Vitro

Lipid-based formulations (LBFs) are a delivery strategy to enhance intestinal absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs. LBF performance is typically evaluated by in vitro lipolysis studies, but these do not accurately predict the in vivo performance. One possible reason is the absence of an absorptive membrane driving sink conditions in the serosal compartment. To explore the impact of absorption under sink conditions on the performance evaluation, we developed a lipolysis-permeation setup that allows simultaneous investigation of intestinal digestion of an LBF and drug absorption. The setup consists of two chambers, an upper one for digestion (luminal), and a lower, receiving one (serosal), separated by a Caco-2 monolayer. Digestions were performed with immobilized lipase, instead of the pancreatic extract typically used during lipolysis, since the latter has proven incompatible with Caco-2 cells. Danazol-loaded LBFs were used to develop the setup, and fenofibrate-loaded LBFs were used to establish an in vitro in vivo correlation. As in regular lipolysis studies, our setup allows for the evaluation of (i) the extent of digestion and (ii) drug distribution in different phases present during lipolysis of drug-loaded LBFs (i.e., oil, aqueous, and solid phase). In addition, our setup can determine drug permeation across Caco-2 monolayers and hence, the absorptive flux of the compound. The presence of the absorptive monolayer and sink conditions tended to reduce aqueous drug concentrations and supersaturation in the digestion chamber. The drug transfer across the Caco-2 membrane accurately reflected in vivo drug exposure upon administration of three different LBFs loaded with fenofibrate, where the traditional lipolysis setup failed to predict in vivo performance. As the new setup reflects the dynamic processes occurring in the gastrointestinal tract, it is a valuable tool that can be used in the development of LBFs prior to in vivo studies.

Protein Abundance of Clinically Relevant Drug Transporters in the Human Liver and Intestine: A Comparative Analysis in Paired Tissue Specimens

Bioavailability of orally administered drugs is partly determined by function of drug transporters in the liver and intestine. Therefore, we explored adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette (ABC) and solute carriers family transporters expression (quantitative polymerase chain reaction) and protein abundance (liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)) in human liver and duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon in paired tissue specimens from nine organ donors. The transporter proteins were detected in the liver (permeability-glycoprotein (P-gp), multidrug resistance protein (MRP)2, MRP3, breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP), organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP)1B1, OATP1B3, OATP2B1, organic cation transporter (OCT)1, OCT3, organic anion transporter 2, Na+-taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide, monocarboxylate transporter (MCT)1, and multidrug and toxin extrusion 1) and the intestine (P-gp, multidrug-resistance protein (MRP)2, MRP3, MRP4, BCRP, OATP2B1, OCT1, apical sodium-bile acid transporter (only ileum), MCT1, and peptide transporter (PEPT1)). Significantly higher hepatic gene expression and protein abundance of ABCC2/MRP2, SLC22A1/OCT1, and SLCO2B1/OATP2B1 were found, as compared to all intestinal segments. No correlations between hepatic and small intestinal protein levels were observed. These observations provide a description of drug transporters distribution without the impact of interindividual variability bias and may help in construction of superior physiologically based pharmacokinetic and humanized animal models.

Antibiotics may increase triazine herbicide exposure risk via disturbing gut microbiota

BACKGROUND

Antibiotics are commonly used worldwide, and pesticide is a kind of xenobiotic to which humans are frequently exposed. The interactive impact of antibiotics on pesticides has rarely been studied. We aim to investigate the effects of antibiotics on the pesticide exposure risk and whether gut microbiota altered by antibiotics has an influence on pesticide bioavailability. Furthermore, we explored the mechanisms of gut microbiota affecting the fate of pesticides in the host.

RESULTS

The oral bioavailability of triazine herbicides significantly increased in the rats treated with ampicillin or antibiotic cocktails. The antibiotic-altered gut microbiota directly influenced the increased pesticide bioavailability through downregulating hepatic metabolic enzyme gene expression and upregulating intestinal absorption-related proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

Antibiotics could increase the pesticide bioavailability and thereby may increase the pesticide exposure risk. The antibiotic-altered gut microbiota that could alter the hepatic metabolic enzyme gene expression and intestinal absorption-related proteome was a critical cause of the increased bioavailability. This study revealed an undiscovered potential health impact of antibiotics and reminded people to consider the co-exposed xenobiotics when taking antibiotics.