Simultaneous determination of 15 BTEX hydroxyl biomarkers in urine by headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Recent Advances in Solid-Phase Extraction as a Platform for Sample Preparation in Biomarker Assay

Low levels of biomarkers and the complexity of bio sample make the analytical assay of several biomarkers a challenging issue. Suitable sample preparation run remain a vital part of the puzzle of diagnostic level. Enhancing the detection limit of bioanalytical methods start during the sample preparation procedure. A robust sample preparation method is needed to evaluate the number of biomarkers. As worldwide environmental issues attract expanding consideration, all the more harmless to the ecosystem investigations are liked. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is an appealing strategy among the sample treatment methods due to the versatility of sorbent materials, less solvent consumption, and compatibility with analytical devices. Miniaturization of the SPE gives the chance to integrate the other analytical steps in a single run, known as an easy-to-use and effective method. SPE utilizes various SPE sorbent beds such as packed beads, porous polymer monoliths, molecularly imprinted polymers, membranes, or other magnetic form microstructures to achieve high surface-to-volume ratio and appropriate chemical properties effective extraction. Also, SPE is the methodology of interest to fulfill high recovery and efficiency demands. In this review, we intend to explain more recent methods for the rational design of SPE and miniaturized SPE to determine biomarkers from biological media. The headlines are subdivided into (1) packing materials in SPE, (2) setups for sample preparation by magnetic SPE, and (3) and future perspective for the application of SPE in sample preparation for analysis of biomarkers.

Human Biomonitoring of Environmental and Occupational Exposures by GC-MS and Gas Sensor Systems: A Systematic Review

Environmental chemicals and contaminants coming from multiple external sources enter the human body, determining a potential risk for human health. Human biomonitoring (HBM), measuring the concentrations of biomarkers in human specimens, has become an emerging approach for assessing population-wide exposure to hazardous chemicals and health risk through large-scale studies in many countries. However, systematic mapping of HBM studies, including their characteristics, targeted hazardous pollutants, analytical techniques, and sample population (general population and occupationally exposed workers), has not been done so far. We conducted a systematic review of the literature related to airborne hazardous pollutants in biofluids to answer the following questions: Which main chemicals have been included in the literature, which bodily fluids have been used, and what are the main findings? Following PRISMA protocol, we summarized the publications published up to 4 February 2021 of studies based on two methods: gas-chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and electronic noses (e-noses). We screened 2606 records and 117 publications were included in the analysis, the most based on GC/MS analysis. The selected HBM studies include measurements of biomarkers in different bodily fluids, such as blood, urine, breast milk, and human semen as well as exhaled air. The papers cover numerous airborne hazardous pollutants that we grouped in chemical classes; a lot of hazardous and noxious compounds, mainly persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), have been detected in biological fluids at alarming levels. The scenario that emerged from this survey demonstrates the importance of HBM in human exposure to hazardous pollutants and the need to use it as valid tool in health surveillance. This systematic review represents a starting point for researchers who focus on the world of pollutant biomonitoring in the human body and gives them important insights into how to improve the methods based on GC/MS. Moreover, it makes a first overview of the use of gas sensor array and e-noses in HBM studies.

A review of new adsorbents for separation of BTEX biomarkers

The biomarker analysis of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene (BTEXs) in biological samples is the primary technique for evaluating these compounds in occupational and environmental exposures. The BTEX biomarkers are widely used to study the BTEX distribution in the environment and workplaces. Liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase liquid extraction are among the most commonly used conventional methods to analyze biological indices of BTEXs. New methods have been proposed to analyze BTEX biomarkers using novel adsorbents such as sol-gel composite nanotubes, molecularly imprinted polymers and metal-organic frameworks, which are based on the application of needle trap devices, microextraction by packed sorbent, and solid-phase microextraction techniques. This paper provides an overview of new methods since 2015 regarding applying microextraction methods based on new adsorbents and analyzing BTEX biomarker compounds for occupational and environmental exposures. The results were compared with the liquid-phase microextraction methods recommended for urinary BTEX biomarkers.