Growing skull fracture after minor closed-head injury

The Role of Ultrasound in Pediatric Skull Fractures: Determination of Fracture and Optic Nerve Sheath Diameter Measurements

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to determine the accuracy of point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) for detecting skull fractures and to evaluate sonographic measurements of optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) and ONSD/eyeball vertical diameter (EVD) ratios in children with head trauma.

METHODS

Children who presented with local signs of head trauma and underwent cranial computed tomography (CT) were enrolled. The suspected area was examined by POCUS to identify a skull fracture, and then the ONSD at 3 mm posterior to the globe and the EVD were measured. Ratios of ONSD measurement at 3 mm/EVD were reported. All ONSD measurements and ratios were calculated from cranial CT images.

RESULTS

There were 112 children enrolled in the study. The sensitivity and specificity of POCUS for skull fractures was 93.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 82.8-98.6) and 96.8% (95% CI, 89.1-99.6), whereas the positive predictive value was 95.7% (95% CI, 85.1-98.8), and the negative predictive value was 95.3% (95% CI, 87.3-98.4). There was high agreement between POCUS and CT for identifying skull fractures (κ, 0.90 [±0.04]). In the group without elevated intracranial pressure findings on CT, patients with space-occupying lesions (SOLs) had higher sonographic ONSD measurements and ratios (P < 0.001) compared with cases without SOLs.

CONCLUSIONS

When used with clinical decision rules to minimize the risk for clinically important traumatic brain injury, POCUS seems to be a promising tool to detect skull fractures and calculate ONSD measurements and rates to predict the risk for SOLs and perform further risk stratification of children with minor head trauma.

Intradiploic encephalocele following linear skull fracture: a rare evolution of growing skull fracture

Growing skull fracture (GSF) is a rare complication of pediatric head trauma. It usually arises from a linear fracture with an underlying dural tear, which results in herniation of the intracranial contents. In rare cases, the herniated intracranial contents can be restricted in the diploe, resulting in an expanded diploic cavity. If there is brain parenchyma herniating into the expanded diploic cavity, the condition is termed as intradiploic encephalocele (IE). Here we present a peculiar pediatric occipital GSF case that resulted from the silent progression of a linear fracture with a small brain herniation into the widened fracture finally leading to an IE after approximately 7 years. Detailed imaging findings from the early injury to the late phase of the disease were provided to record this natural process. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case providing the imaging data of early injury before developing into IE.

Evidence base for point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) for diagnosis of skull fractures in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Blunt head trauma is a common presentation to emergency departments (EDs). Identifying skull fractures in children is important as they are known factor of risk for traumatic brain injury (TBI). Currently, CT is the reference standard for diagnosing skull fractures and TBIs in children. Identifying skull fractures with point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) may help risk-stratify children for TBI following blunt trauma. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of POCUS in identifying skull fractures in children.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed on 17 July 2020 in Ovid Medline, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Web of Science and Embase. Prospective studies reporting skull fractures diagnosed with ultrasound in children younger than 18 years due to blunt head injury were included. Studies that did not confirm the fracture with CT were excluded. The quality of studies was evaluated using the QUADAS-2 tool. Data were extracted from the eligible studies to calculate outcomes such as sensitivity and specificity; when possible overall outcomes were calculated.

RESULTS

Seven studies were included. All eligible studies included patients for whom the decision to perform a CT scan was made in advance. Overall, the included studies demonstrated low risk of bias or had minor concerns regarding risk of bias. The pooled data (n=925) demonstrated a sensitivity of 91%, specificity of 96%, positive predictive value of 88% and negative predictive value of 97%.

CONCLUSION

The included studies demonstrate minor methodological limitations. Overall, the evidence suggests that POCUS is a valid option for diagnosing skull fractures in children visiting the ED after blunt head injury.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Management and Outcomes of Isolated Skull Fractures in Children

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Most studies of children with isolated skull fractures have been relatively small, and rare adverse outcomes may have been missed. Our aim is to quantify the frequency of short-term adverse outcomes of children with isolated skull fractures.

METHODS

PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, Scopus, Web of Science, and gray literature were systematically searched to identify studies reporting on short-term adverse outcomes of children aged 18 years or younger with linear, nondisplaced, isolated skull fractures (ie, without traumatic intracranial injury on neuroimaging). Two investigators independently reviewed identified articles for inclusion, assessed quality, and extracted relevant data. Our primary outcome was emergency neurosurgery or death. Secondary outcomes were hospitalization and new intracranial hemorrhage on repeated neuroimaging. Meta-analyses of pooled estimate of each outcome were conducted with random-effects models, and heterogeneity across studies was assessed.

RESULTS

Of the 587 studies screened, the 21 that met our inclusion criteria included 6,646 children with isolated skull fractures. One child needed emergency neurosurgery and no children died (pooled estimate 0.0%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.0% to 0.0%; I²=0%). Of the 6,280 children with known emergency department disposition, 4,914 (83%; 95% CI 71% to 92%; I²=99%) were hospitalized. Of the 569 children who underwent repeated neuroimaging, 6 had new evidence of intracranial hemorrhage (0.0%; 95% CI 0.0% to 9.0%; I²=77%); none required operative intervention.

CONCLUSION

Children with isolated skull fractures were at extremely low risk for emergency neurosurgery or death, but were frequently hospitalized. Clinically stable children with an isolated skull fracture may be considered for outpatient management in the absence of other clinical concerns.

Point-of-Care Ultrasound for the Diagnosis of Skull Fractures in Children Younger Than Two Years of Age

OBJECTIVES

To determine the accuracy of skull point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) for identifying fractures in children younger than 2 years of age with signs of head trauma, and the ability of POCUS to identify the type and depth of fracture depression.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a multicenter, prospective, observational study of children younger than 2 years of age with nontrivial mechanisms of injury and signs of scalp/skull trauma. Patients were enrolled if they underwent computed tomography (CT). Patients underwent clinical evaluation, in addition to a cranial POCUS in the emergency department (ED). From the POCUS examinations, we documented whether fractures were present or absent, their location, characteristics, and depth. POCUS and CT findings were compared to calculate the diagnostic accuracy.

RESULTS

We enrolled a convenience sample of 115 of 151 (76.1%) eligible patients. Of the 115 enrolled, 88 (76.5%) had skull fractures. POCUS had a sensitivity of 80 of 88 (90.9%; 95% CI 82.9-96.0) and a specificity of 23 of 27 (85.2%; 95% CI 66.3-95.8) for identifying skull fractures. Agreement between POCUS and CT to identify the type of fracture as linear, depressed, or complex was 84.4% (97 of 115) with a kappa of 0.75 (95% CI 0.70-0.84).

CONCLUSIONS

POCUS performed by emergency physicians may identify the type and depth of fractures in infants with local physical signs of head trauma with substantial accuracy. Emergency physicians should consider POCUS as an adjunct to clinical evaluation and prediction rules for traumatic brain injuries in children younger than 2 years of age.

Italian guidelines on the assessment and management of pediatric head injury in the emergency department

OBJECTIVE

We aim to formulate evidence-based recommendations to assist physicians decision-making in the assessment and management of children younger than 16 years presenting to the emergency department (ED) following a blunt head trauma with no suspicion of non-accidental injury.

METHODS

These guidelines were commissioned by the Italian Society of Pediatric Emergency Medicine and include a systematic review and analysis of the literature published since 2005. Physicians with expertise and experience in the fields of pediatrics, pediatric emergency medicine, pediatric intensive care, neurosurgery and neuroradiology, as well as an experienced pediatric nurse and a parent representative were the components of the guidelines working group. Areas of direct interest included 1) initial assessment and stabilization in the ED, 2) diagnosis of clinically important traumatic brain injury in the ED, 3) management and disposition in the ED. The guidelines do not provide specific guidance on the identification and management of possible associated cervical spine injuries. Other exclusions are noted in the full text.

CONCLUSIONS

Recommendations to guide physicians practice when assessing children presenting to the ED following blunt head trauma are reported in both summary and extensive format in the guideline document.

Growing skull fractures: guidelines for early diagnosis and surgical management

BACKGROUND

Growing skull fracture (GSF) is a rare complication of pediatric head trauma and causes delayed onset neurological deficits and cranial defect. GSF usually develops following linear fracture with underlying dural tear resulting in herniation of the brain. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to avoid complications. However, there are no clear-cut guidelines for the early diagnosis of GSF. The present study was conducted to identify the criteria for the early diagnosis of GSF.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

From 2010 to 2015, all pediatric patients of head trauma with linear fracture were evaluated. Patients of age <5 years with cephalhematoma, bone diastasis of 4 mm or more with underlying brain contusion were subjected to contrast brain MRI to find out the dural tear and herniation of the brain matter. Patients with contrast MRI showing dural tear and herniation of the brain matter were considered high risk for the development of GSF and treated surgically within 1 month of trauma. Patients with contrast brain MRI not showing dural tear and herniation of the brain matter were regularly followed for any signs of GSF.

RESULTS

A total of 20 patients were evaluated, out of which 16 showed dural defects with herniation of the brain matter and were subjected to duraplasty. Four patients in which MRI did not show dural tear and herniation of the brain matter were regularly followed-up and have not shown any sign of GSF later on follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis of GSF can be made based on the four criteria, i.e., (1) age <5 year with cephalhematoma, (2) bone diastasis 4 mm or more (3) underlying brain contusion (4) contrast MRI showing dural tear and herniation of the brain matter. Dural tear with herniation of the brain matter is the main etiopathogenic factor for the development of GSF. Early diagnosis and treatment of GSF can yield a good outcome.

Pediatric head injuries

Head injuries in children are common, comprising more than half of all injuries sustained. The mortality and morbidity associated with traumatic head injury in children is staggering, and the cumulative effect of such on the pediatric and general populations is propagated through related health care measures and subsequent socioeconomic burden. The majority of deaths due to trauma in children are caused by brain injury. This article reviews the evaluation and management of scalp injuries in the pediatric patient. The second portion addresses skull fractures, the specter of child abuse, management of acute fracture, and the phenomenon of growing skull fractures.

Nondepressed linear skull fractures in children younger than 2 years: is computed tomography always necessary?

BACKGROUND

Current recommendations are that young children with a skull fracture following head injury undergo computed tomography (CT) examination of their head to exclude significant intracranial injury. Recent reports, however, have raised concern that radiation exposure from CT scanning may cause malignancies.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the proportion of children with nondisplaced linear skull fractures who have clinically significant intracranial injury.

METHODS

Retrospective review of patients younger than 2 years who presented to an emergency department and received a diagnosis of skull fracture.

RESULTS

Ninety-two patients met the criteria for inclusion in the study; all had a head CT scan performed. None suffered a clinically significant intracranial injury.

CONCLUSION

Observation, rather than CT, may be a reasonable management option for head-injured children younger than 2 years who have a nondisplaced linear skull fracture on plain radiography but no clinical signs of intracranial injury.

Growing skull fracture stages and treatment strategy

OBJECT

A growing skull fracture (GSF) is a rare but significant late complication of skull fractures, usually occurring during infancy and early childhood. Delayed diagnosis and improper treatment could exacerbate this disease. The aim of this study was to introduce a new hypothesis about, describe the stages of, and discuss the treatment strategy for GSF.

METHODS

The authors performed a retrospective review of 27 patients with GSF, who were grouped according to 3 different GSF stages.

RESULTS

Over a period of 20 years, 27 patients with GSF (16 males and 11 females) were treated in the authors' department. The mean follow-up period was 26.5 months. Six patients were in the prephase of GSF (Stage 1), 10 patients in the early phase (Stage 2), and 11 in the late phase (Stage 3). All patients underwent duraplasty. All 6 patients at Stage 1 and 5 patients at Stage 2 underwent craniotomy without cranioplasty. Five patients at Stage 2 and all of the patients at Stage 3 underwent cranioplasty with autologous bone and alloplastic materials, respectively. Among all patients, 5 underwent ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement. Symptoms in all patients at Stages 1 and 2 were alleviated or disappeared, and the cranial bones developed without deformity during follow-up. Among patients with Stage 3 GSF, no obvious improvement in neurological deficits was observed. Three patients underwent additional operations because of cranial deformation or infection.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors identify the stages of GSF according to a new hypothesis. They conclude that accurately diagnosing and treating GSF during Stages 1 and 2 leads to a better prognosis.