Daily transabdominal electrical stimulation at home increased defecation in children with slow-transit constipation: a pilot study

Recent advances in treating constipation in children

INTRODUCTION

Functional constipation (FC) is a common childhood condition, diagnosed via the Rome IV criteria. Standard therapy includes lifestyle and dietary modification followed by initiation of osmotic laxative therapy. About 30% of children continue to experience symptoms related to FC despite appropriate management. New pharmacologic, surgical, and neuromodulatory therapies for FC are now available for use in adult and pediatric populations. In 2023, the first pharmacologic agent, linaclotide, obtained FDA approval for treatment of FC in children 6-17 years old.

AREAS COVERED

This article reviews current and emerging pharmacologic, surgical, and neuromodulation therapies for the management of FC in pediatric patients. Efficacy and safety data regarding each of these modalities was reviewed and discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Advancements in therapeutics available for the management of FC necessitate further investigation on safety and efficacy in pediatric populations. Careful consideration should be taken in choosing an available treatment with limited pediatric evidence as adult and pediatric FC have different underlying pathophysiology and require a different therapeutic approach. Standardization of methodology and pediatric endpoints are needed to optimize ability to compare efficacy of different treatments. We predict the future of pediatric FC management will include a personalized approach to care, resulting in improved outcomes.

Treatments for intractable constipation in childhood

BACKGROUND

Constipation that is prolonged and does not resolve with conventional therapeutic measures is called intractable constipation. The treatment of intractable constipation is challenging, involving pharmacological or non-pharmacological therapies, as well as surgical approaches. Unresolved constipation can negatively impact quality of life, with additional implications for health systems. Consequently, there is an urgent need to identify treatments that are efficacious and safe.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of treatments used for intractable constipation in children.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, and two trials registers up to 23 June 2023. We also searched reference lists of included studies for relevant studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing any pharmacological, non-pharmacological, or surgical treatment to placebo or another active comparator, in participants aged between 0 and 18 years with functional constipation who had not responded to conventional medical therapy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methods. Our primary outcomes were symptom resolution, frequency of defecation, treatment success, and adverse events; secondary outcomes were stool consistency, painful defecation, quality of life, faecal incontinence frequency, abdominal pain, hospital admission for disimpaction, and school absence. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of evidence for each primary outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

This review included 10 RCTs with 1278 children who had intractable constipation. We assessed one study as at low risk of bias across all domains. There were serious concerns about risk of bias in six studies. One study compared the injection of 160 units botulinum toxin A (n = 44) to unspecified oral stool softeners (n = 44). We are very uncertain whether botulinum toxin A injection improves treatment success (risk ratio (RR) 37.00, 95% confidence interval (CI) 5.31 to 257.94; very low certainty evidence, downgraded due to serious concerns with risk of bias and imprecision). Frequency of defecation was reported only for the botulinum toxin A injection group (mean interval of 2.6 days). The study reported no data for the other primary outcomes. One study compared erythromycin estolate (n = 6) to placebo (n = 8). The only primary outcome reported was adverse events, which were 0 in both groups. The evidence is of very low certainty due to concerns with risk of bias and serious imprecision. One study compared 12 or 24 μg oral lubiprostone (n = 404) twice a day to placebo (n = 202) over 12 weeks. There may be little to no difference in treatment success (RR 1.29, 95% CI 0.87 to 1.92; low certainty evidence). We also found that lubiprostone probably results in little to no difference in adverse events (RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.21; moderate certainty evidence). The study reported no data for the other primary outcomes. One study compared three-weekly rectal sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate and sorbitol enemas (n = 51) to 0.5 g/kg/day polyethylene glycol laxatives (n = 51) over a 52-week period. We are very uncertain whether rectal sodium dioctyl sulfosuccinate and sorbitol enemas improve treatment success (RR 1.33, 95% CI 0.83 to 2.14; very low certainty evidence, downgraded due to serious concerns with risk of bias and imprecision). Results of defecation frequency per week was reported only as modelled means using a linear mixed model. The study reported no data for the other primary outcomes. One study compared biofeedback therapy (n = 12) to no intervention (n = 12). We are very uncertain whether biofeedback therapy improves symptom resolution (RR 2.50, 95% CI 1.08 to 5.79; very low certainty evidence, downgraded due to serious concerns with risk of bias and imprecision). The study reported no data for the other primary outcomes. One study compared 20 minutes of intrarectal electromotive botulinum toxin A using 2800 Hz frequency and botulinum toxin A dose 10 international units/kg (n = 30) to 10 international units/kg botulinum toxin A injection (n = 30). We are very uncertain whether intrarectal electromotive botulinum toxin A improves symptom resolution (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.76 to 1.22; very low certainty evidence) or if it increases the frequency of defecation (mean difference (MD) 0.00, 95% CI -1.87 to 1.87; very low certainty evidence). We are also very uncertain whether intrarectal electromotive botulinum toxin A has an improved safety profile (RR 0.20, 95% CI 0.01 to 4.00; very low certainty evidence). The evidence for these results is of very low certainty due to serious concerns with risk of bias and imprecision. The study did not report data on treatment success. One study compared the injection of 60 units botulinum toxin A (n = 21) to myectomy of the internal anal sphincter (n = 21). We are very uncertain whether botulinum toxin A injection improves treatment success (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.34; very low certainty evidence). No adverse events were recorded. The study reported no data for the other primary outcomes. One study compared 0.04 mg/kg oral prucalopride (n = 107) once daily to placebo (n = 108) over eight weeks. Oral prucalopride probably results in little or no difference in defecation frequency (MD 0.50, 95% CI -0.06 to 1.06; moderate certainty evidence); treatment success (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.72; moderate certainty evidence); and adverse events (RR 1.15, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.39; moderate certainty evidence). The study did not report data on symptom resolution. One study compared transcutaneous electrical stimulation to sham stimulation, and another study compared dietitian-prescribed Mediterranean diet with written instructions versus written instructions. These studies did not report any of our predefined primary outcomes.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We identified low to moderate certainty evidence that oral lubiprostone may result in little to no difference in treatment success and adverse events compared to placebo. Based on moderate certainty evidence, there is probably little or no difference between oral prucalopride and placebo in defecation frequency, treatment success, or adverse events. For all other comparisons, the certainty of the evidence for our predefined primary outcomes is very low due to serious concerns with study limitations and imprecision. Consequently, no robust conclusions could be drawn.

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation for gastrointestinal motility disorders

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Gastrointestinal (GI) dysmotility is categorized by muscle or nerve dysfunctions in any portion of the GI tract, which leads to abnormalities in GI motor and sensory function. Symptoms may vary depending on the organ affected and can be debilitating. Treatment usually involves diet and lifestyle changes. Pharmacotherapy is limited in effectiveness with various side effects. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES), a noninvasive, needleless technique that provides electrical stimulation using cutaneous non-needle electrodes, has become increasingly popular. It has been shown to be beneficial in treating GI motility disorders.

METHODS

This review paper navigates through the different TES techniques, including transcutaneous peripheral nerve (vagal/sacral/tibial nerves) electrical stimulation, transcutaneous electrical acustimulation (stimulation via acupuncture point), transcutaneous interferential current therapy, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation.

KEY RESULTS

As we delve deeper, we explore the promising effects of TES on dysphagia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, functional dyspepsia, gastroparesis, postoperative ileus, constipation, and irritable bowel syndrome. The literature at hand speaks volumes about the therapeutic prowess of this noninvasive technique.

CONCLUSION & INFERENCES

The time is ripe to evaluate further the full therapeutic potential of TES, a noninvasive, nonpharmaceutical, nonsurgical, and home-based self-administrative technique in managing GI motility disorders.

Interferential therapy for chronic constipation in adults: The CON-COUR randomizedcontrolled trial

BACKGROUND

Chronic constipation (CC) is a frequent condition, and the first-line treatment includes dietary rules, the use of laxatives, and biofeedback for evacuation disorders. However, almost half of the patients are dissatisfied with their current treatment. We report the first double-blind randomized multicenter trial assessing the effectiveness of transabdominal electrical stimulation by interferential therapy (IFT) in the treatment of CC in adults.

METHODS

A prospective, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled, parallel-group, phase 3 trial was conducted at 7 centers in France. The primary endpoint was 8-week efficacy as defined by the number of complete spontaneous bowel movements during the last 4 weeks of the 8-week stimulation period. Secondary endpoints included the evaluation of the effects of IFT on symptoms (Patient Assessment of Constipation Symptoms questionnair (PAC-SYM)), quality of life (QOL) (Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life), Colonic transit time (CTT), anorectal manometry, and patient satisfaction.

RESULTS

The proportion of 8-week responders was not significantly different between the two groups (73.2% in the IFT group vs. 67.1% in the sham group). After 8 weeks of stimulation, the mean overall PAC-SYM score and the mean reduction in the overall PAC-SYM score were significantly greater in the IFT group than in the sham group. No differences were observed concerning CTT, anorectal manometry, or patient satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the primary endpoint was not reached, IFT can significantly alleviate the symptoms and improve the QOL of CC patients. It can be assumed that new treatments require different modes of evaluation and that the assessment of patient-reported outcomes may become a priority among therapeutic targets of CC. Trial registration number NCT02381665.

Transcutaneous Neuromodulation for Constipation and Fecal Incontinence in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Constipation is a disorder with a multifactorial origin. Constipation has a varied clinical presentation, including infrequent defecation of bulky stools and episodes of retentive fecal incontinence. Neuromodulation has been used to treat many health problems, with promising results.

OBJECTIVE

To conduct a systematic review of randomized clinical trials based on the effects of transcutaneous neuromodulation in treating constipation and retentive fecal incontinence in children and adolescents.

METHODS

A systematic review of randomized clinical trials was performed. Medline (PubMed), PEDro, SciELO, Cochrane (CENTRAL), Embase, and Scopus databases were searched from March 2000 to August 2022. We included clinical trials evaluating transcutaneous neuromodulation in children with constipation and fecal incontinence compared or associated with other types of treatment. Two reviewers independently selected relevant studies, assessed the methodological quality, and extracted the data.

RESULTS

Three studies with 164 participants were included in this review. Two meta-analyses were generated based on these studies. These analyses revealed that transcutaneous neuromodulation is an effective adjuvant treatment modality that improves children's constipation and retentive fecal incontinence. The methodological quality of the included studies was classified as high based on the assessment of the quality of evidence, with a high degree of confidence based on the GRADE system.

CONCLUSIONS

Transcutaneous neuromodulation is an effective adjuvant treatment modality for children with constipation and retentive fecal incontinence.

Pediatric gastrointestinal neuromodulation: A review

Neuromodulation, also known as bioelectric neuromodulation or neurostimulation, is the therapeutic use of electrical stimulation of nerves or brain centers. Neuromodulation has been trialed in an increasing range of human diseases as well as gastrointestinal disorders. The application of neuromodulation to treat pediatric motility and functional disorders is an exciting recent development. This review aims to briefly discuss the use of neuromodulation for the treatment of pediatric gastroparesis, constipation, and visceral hyperalgesia.

Neurogenic Bowel Dysfunction in Children and Adolescents

Neurogenic/neuropathic bowel dysfunction (NBD) is common in children who are affected by congenital and acquired neurological disease, and negatively impacts quality of life. In the past, NBD received less attention than neurogenic bladder, generally being considered only in spina bifida (the most common cause of pediatric NBD). Many methods of conservative and medical management of NBD are reported, including relatively recently Transanal Irrigation (TAI). Based on the literature and personal experience, an expert group (pediatric urologists/surgeons/gastroenterologists with specific experience in NBD) focused on NBD in children and adolescents. A statement document was created using a modified Delphi method. The range of causes of pediatric NBD are discussed in this paper. The various therapeutic approaches are presented to improve clinical management. The population of children and adolescents with NBD is increasing, due both to the higher survival rate and better diagnosis. While NBD is relatively predictable in producing either constipation or fecal incontinence, or both, its various effects on each patient will depend on a wide range of underlying causes and accompanying comorbidities. For this reason, management of NBD should be tailored individually with a combined multidisciplinary therapy appropriate for the status of the affected child and caregivers.

Non-pharmacologic approach to pediatric constipation

Functional constipation (FC) is a pervasive problem in pediatrics. Although pharmaceuticals are commonly used for FC, parents and patients show reluctance or find dissatisfaction with available medications at times. Further, patients often have interest in utilizing nutraceutical supplements and botanicals that are available over the counter. This literature review aims to summarize research studies performed on non-pharmacologic approaches to constipation and to evaluate the safety and efficacy of these modalities. Overall data on non-pharmacologic treatments for childhood constipation were sparse, and though some studies were available for adult populations, pediatrics studies were generally limited, lacking or flawed. Certain supplements, such as prebiotics, probiotics and fiber, are safe and are without significant side effects. Though fiber supplements such as glucomannan, green banana mass, cocao husk and various fiber blends have emerging evidence in children, evidence for psyllium, cellulose and flaxseed only have supportive studies in adults. Other than senna, studies of botanicals indicate significant safety concerns (in particular with Aloe vera with aloin and Cascara sagrada) and insufficient evidence. For patients with a significant behavioral or anxiety component to their FC and exhibit dyssynergia, mind-body interventions (e.g. diaphragmatic breathing, biofeedback, cognitive behavioral therapy, and behavioral modifications) are certainly safe and effective. Finally, movement and manipulative interventions such as abdominal massage, reflexology, acupuncture and transcutaneous nerve stimulation show promise in the field of pediatric constipation, and data is accumulating for efficacy. These modalities require further study to determine mechanisms of action and which populations may benefit the most from these therapies.

Paediatric constipation for general paediatricians: Review using a case-based and evidence-based approach

Constipation is a common problem in childhood. The most common type of constipation is functional, accounting for 90-95% of all cases. The aim of this review is to provide clinical scenarios with treatment using evidence-based information, and management strategies and a clinical algorithm to guide the management of constipation in children. Recent guidelines and online information sites are detailed. Clinical red flags and organic causes of constipation are included. Four clinical scenarios are presented: case (1) 4-month-old child with constipation since birth and likely Hirschsprung disease; case (2) 6-month-old infant with infant dyschezia; case (3) 4-year old with functional constipation; and; case (4) 9-year old with treatment resistant constipation. Children with functional constipation need a thorough history and physical exam to rule out the presence of any 'red flags' but do not require laboratory investigations. Management includes education and demystification, disimpaction followed by maintenance therapy with oral laxatives, dietary counselling and toilet training. Treatment options differ between infants and children. Disimpaction and maintenance regimens for common laxatives are presented. On treatment failure or on suspicion of organic disease the patient should be referred for further evaluation. The radionuclide intestinal transit study (scintigraphy) is a useful modality for evaluation and planning of management in treatment-resistant children. Treatment options for treatment-resistant patients are presented. High-level evidence (meta-analyses) for pharmalogical and non-pharmalogical treatment modalities are reviewed and an algorithm for assessment and treatment are presented.

Comparisons between Manual Lymph Drainage, Abdominal Massage, and Electrical Stimulation on Functional Constipation Outcomes: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Evidence supports abdominal massage (AM) or electrical stimulation (ES) as effective in treating functional constipation (FC). Manual lymph drainage (MLD) may also be beneficial, however, it was not previously investigated or compared to ES and AM.

METHODS

Sixteen college-aged males and 36 females were recruited. Participants were randomly assigned to MLD, AM or ES. Heart rate variability (HRV) measures for total power (TP), high frequency (HF), low frequency and LF/HF ratio assessed ANS outcomes. state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI) and stress response inventory (SRI) assessed psychological factors and bowel movement frequency (BMF) and duration (BMD) were recorded daily.

RESULTS

MLD significantly improved all ANS measures (p≤0.01); AM significantly improved LF, HF and LF/HF ratios (p = 0.04); and ES significantly improved LF (p = 0.1). STAI measures improved, but not significantly in all groups. SRI improved significantly from MLD (p < 0.01), AM (p = 0.04) and ES (p < 0.01), but changes were not significant between groups. BMD improved significantly in all groups (p≤ 0.02). BMF improved significantly only following MLD and AM (p < 0.1), but differences between groups were not significant (p = 0.39).

CONCLUSIONS

MLD significantly reduced FC symptoms and MLD had greater improvements than AM or ES.

Randomised clinical trial: transabdominal interferential electrical stimulation vs sham stimulation in women with functional constipation

BACKGROUND

Managing chronic constipation is challenging as patients frequently remain dissatisfied with laxative treatments. Novel studies using transabdominal electrical interferential therapy in children have shown benefit but there are inadequate adult studies.

AIM

To examine the effects of transabdominal interferential stimulation on bowel symptoms and quality of life in women with refractory constipation.

METHODS

In a single-blind, randomised, sham-controlled pilot study, women aged ≥18 years with refractory constipation were randomised to receive interferential stimulation (with crossing of electric currents) or a novel sham stimulation (with no crossing of currents) for 1 hour a day for 6 weeks. Primary outcome was the number of patients with ≥3 spontaneous bowel movements/week. Secondary endpoints included change in PAC-SYM (Patient Assessment of Constipation-SYMptoms), PAC-QOL (Patient Assessment of Constipation-Quality of Life) and an overall symptom severity score (measured at baseline, mid time point of stimulation, end of treatment and 3 months after cessation of treatment).

RESULTS

Interferential therapy (n = 17) met the primary outcome in 9(53%) compared with 2(12%) with sham therapy (n = 16) (P = 0.02). Interferential therapy resulted in reductions in PAC-SYM (P = 0.03) and overall symptom scores (P = 0.05). Laxative use more than halved in 66% with interferential therapy compared with 14% with sham therapy (P = 0.01). Significant improvements in symptom outcomes were maintained at 3 months. There were no treatment-related adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Transabdominal interferential electrical stimulation is effective in reducing constipation in adult women. Three months after therapy, response is maintained and quality of life improved. Not allowing currents to cross intra-abdominally was an effective placebo. (Australianclinicaltrials.gov.au ACTRN12614000736640).

'Rapid transit' constipation in children: a possible genesis for irritable bowel syndrome

Children with chronic idiopathic constipation (CIC) often end up at the surgeon when medical treatments have failed. This opinion piece discusses a recently described pattern of CIC called 'Rapid transit constipation (RTC)' first identified in 2011 as part of surgical workup. RTC was identified using a nuclear medicine gastrointestinal transit study (NMGIT or nuclear transit study) to determine the site of slowing within the bowel and to inform surgical treatment. Unexpectedly, we found that RTC occured in 29% of 1000 transit studies in a retrospective audit. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) occurs in 7-21% of the population, with a higher prevalence in young children and with constipation type dominating in the young. While 60% improve with time, 40% continue with symptoms. First-line therapy for IBS in adults is a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols which reduces symptoms in > 70% of patients. In children with functional gastrointestinal disorders, fructose intolerance occurs in 35-55%. Reducing fructose produced significant improvement in 77-82% of intolerant patients. In children with RTC and a positive breath test upon fructose challenge, we found that exclusion of fructose significantly improved constipation, abdominal pain, stool consistency and decreased laxative use. We hypothesise that positive breath tests and improvement of pain and bowel frequency with sugar exclusion diets in RTC suggest these children have IBS-C. These observations raise the possibility that many children with CIC could be treated by reducing fructose early in their diet and this might prevent the development of IBS in later life.

A Pilot Study of Non-invasive Sacral Nerve Stimulation in Treatment of Constipation in Childhood and Adolescence

Background/Aims: Constipation shows both, a high prevalence and a significant impact. However, it is often perceived as minor and treatment choices are limited. The neuromodulation approach is a valuable option to be considered. This study assesses the use of non-invasive sacral nerve stimulation to reduce constipation in children. Methods: Between February 2013 and May 2015, pediatric patients with chronic constipation were treated with this non-invasive neuromodulation procedure, adapted from classical sacral nerve stimulation. A stimulation device attached to adhesive electrodes on the lower abdomen and back generated an electrical field with a stable frequency of 15 Hz via variable stimulation intensity (1-10 V). The effect of therapy was evaluated in routine check-ups and by specialized questionnaires. Results: The study assessed non-invasive sacral nerve stimulation in 17 patients (9 boys, 8 girls, mean age 6.5 years). They underwent stimulation with 6-9 V for a mean of 11 h per day (range 0.5-24 h) over a mean of 12.7 weeks. Improvement of constipation was achieved in more than half of the patients (12/17) and sustained in almost half of these patients (5/12). Complications were minor (skin irritation, electrode dislocation). Conclusions: Non-invasive sacral nerve stimulation appears to be effective in achieving improvement in pediatric patients with chronic constipation. As an additional external neuromodulation concept, this stimulation may represent a relevant addition to currently available therapeutic options. Further studies are needed to confirm these results.

Comparative assessment of efficacy and safety of different treatment for de novo overactive bladder children: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

Objective

To compare these managements focusing on the efficacy and safety to treat overactive bladder (OAB) in children through network meta-analysis (NMA).

Methods

We searched PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) and the reference lists up to May 1st, 2017. Data from eligible randomized controlled trails (RCT) studies including three different treatment options were extracted. The primary outcome was maximal voiding volume (MVV). We performed pairwise meta-analyses by random effects model and NMA by Bayesian model. We used the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) framework to assess the quality of evidence contributing to each network estimate.

Results

Six RCTs (462 patients) comparing three different interventions fulfilled the inclusion criteria. A low risk of bias was shown for the majority of the study items. The results of NMA showed that compared with antimuscarinic drugs, Parasacral transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation was associated with significant improvement in the MVV (mean difference [MD] = 58.50, 95% confidential interval [CI]: 45.95–69.52), followed by urotherapy group (MD = 21.03, 95% CI: 11.85–29.97). When it comes to the constipation, antimuscarinic drugs exerted significant benefit than PTENS (odds ratio [OR]: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.01–0.46). No significant difference was found between other treatments.

Conclusion

Compared with antimuscarinic drugs, PTENS was associated with significant better efficacy considering MVV, but more constipation events in de novo OAB children. Antimuscarinic drugs showed remarkably better efficacy considering MVV and comparable safety profile compared with urotherapy. Clinicians should take all known safety and compliance of patients into account when choosing an optimal strategy.

Systematic review: sacral nerve stimulation in the treatment of constipation and fecal incontinence in children with emphasis in anorectal malformation

BACKGROUND

Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) is frequently used for constipation and fecal incontinence in the adult literature. The purpose of this study is to perform a systemic review of the literature for SNS for constipation and fecal incontinence in children with emphasis in anorectal malformations.

METHODS

Systematic literature review was conducted to include all SNS studies in patients < 19 years of age. Studies were separated into those for (1) constipation, (2) bowel and bladder dysfunction, and (3) anorectal malformations.

RESULTS

28 articles were included in the review: (1) 12 constipation (269 patients) and (2) 16 bowel and bladder dysfunction (441 patients). Some studies overlapped groups, as they included some patients with anorectal malformations (4 articles and 29 patients). Constipation studies included slow transit and retention constipation and showed varying degrees of improvement. For bowel and bladder dysfunction, studies also reported varying degrees of improvement using different measures (number of bowel movements per day, transit times, and soiling improvement). There was no specific description of the results in anorectal malformation (ARM) cases and also information regarding specific ARM type, sacral ratio, or presence of tethered cord.

CONCLUSIONS

SNS for constipation and urinary problems seems to be promising. Data are limited and heterogeneous, and SNS cannot be definitively encouraged or discouraged in patients with ARM, based on current studies. Future studies should include more objective measurements of bowel outcomes and specify outcomes related to patients with anorectal malformations including information regarding their specific malformation, sacral ratio, and presence of tethered cord. Complications' rate is considerable high.

Efficacy of electroacupuncture compared with transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation for functional constipation: Study protocol for a randomized, controlled trial

BACKGROUND

To treat functional constipation, both electroacupuncture (EA) therapy and transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation (TENS) are safe and effective. However, no head-to-head comparison trial has been conducted. This trial compares the efficacy of electroacupuncture relative to transcutaneous electric nerve stimulation for functional constipation.

METHODS

Individuals with functional constipation will be randomly allocated to receive either EA or TENS (n = 51, each), 3 times per week for 8 weeks. The primary outcome is the percentage of participants with an average increase from baseline of 1 or more complete spontaneous bowel movements at week 8. The secondary outcome measures are the following: at the time of visits, changes in the number of complete spontaneous bowel movements, number of spontaneous bowel movements, stool character, difficulty in defecation, patients' assessment of quality of life regarding constipation (self-report questionnaire), and use of auxiliary defecation methods.

DISCUSSION

The results of this trial should verify whether EA is more efficacious than TENS for relieving symptoms of functional constipation. The major limitation of the study is the lack of blinding of the participants and acupuncturist.

Clinical practice guidelines from the French National Society of Coloproctology in treating chronic constipation

Chronic constipation is a common symptom that regularly affects the quality of life of adult patients. Its treatment is mainly based on dietary rules, laxative drugs, perineal rehabilitation and surgical treatment. The French National Society of Coloproctology offers clinical practice recommendations on the basis of the data in the current literature, including those on recently developed treatments. Most are noninvasive, and the main concepts include the following: stimulant laxatives are now considered safe drugs and can be more easily prescribed as a second-line treatment; biofeedback therapy remains the gold standard for the treatment of anorectal dyssynergia that is resistant to medical treatment; transanal irrigation is the second-line treatment of choice in patients with neurological diseases, but it may also be proposed for patients without neurological diseases; and although interferential therapy may be a new promising treatment, it needs further evaluation.

Surgical Management of Idiopathic Constipation in Pediatric Patients

Constipation is a common childhood problem, but an anatomic or physiologic cause is identified in fewer than 5% of children. By definition, idiopathic constipation is a diagnosis of exclusion. Careful clinical evaluation and thoughtful use of imaging and other testing can help exclude specific causes of constipation and guide therapy. Medical management with laxatives is effective for the majority of constipated children. For those patients unresponsive to medications, however, several surgical options can be employed, including anal procedures, antegrade colonic enemas, colorectal resection, and intestinal diversion. Judicious use of these procedures in properly selected patients and based on appropriate preoperative testing can lead to excellent outcomes. This review summarizes the surgical options available for managing refractory constipation in children and provides guidance on how to choose the best procedure for a given patient.

Effects of Interferential Electrical Stimulation Plus Pelvic Floor Muscles Exercises on Functional Constipation in Children: A Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVES

Functional constipation is a common condition in children. We assessed the effectiveness of combined interferential (IF) electrical stimulation and pelvic floor muscle (PFM) exercises on functional constipation in children.

METHODS

We conducted a single-center, double-blind randomized clinical trial study during 2014-2017 in Tehran, Iran. Ninety children, aged 5-13 years, who fulfilled Rome III criteria were enrolled and randomly assigned into two treatment groups. Case group (n=45) underwent IF electrical stimulation and PFM exercises, whereas the control group (n=45) received PFM exercises plus sham stimulation. A complete bowel habit diary (with concerning data on the frequency of defecation per week, stool form, and the number of fecal soiling episodes), a constipation score questionnaire, and a visual pain score were recorded before, after the treatment and 6 months later for all participants. In addition, children in both groups were assessed with a constipation-related quality-of-life questionnaire before, after the end of treatment sessions, and 6 months after the treatment.

RESULTS

Treatment success was achieved for 88.4% of children in the case group compared with 43.2% of children in the control group after the treatment (P<0.003). The median constipation score was reduced in both groups, with the cases having significantly lower scores after the treatment (4 vs. 8, P<0.000). Stool form normalized in 75.6% of the cases and 45.5% of the controls after the treatment (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that using IF electrical stimulation as an adjuvant therapy to the medical and rehabilitation programs significantly boosts the effects of treatment among these patients.

Neuromodulation via Interferential Electrical Stimulation as a Novel Therapy in Gastrointestinal Motility Disorders

The concept of therapeutic percutaneous neuromodulation has, until recently, been limited by the ability to penetrate deeply enough to stimulate internal organs. By utilizing 2 medium frequency, slightly out of phase electrical currents passing diagonally through the abdomen, a third, low frequency current is created at the point of bisection. This interferential current appears to stimulate nerve fibers in the target organs and may have a therapeutic action. The aim of the study is to review the use of transcutaneous interferential electrical stimulation with a focus on its application in gastroenterology, particularly in motility disorders. Studies involving use of interferential current therapy were searched from Medline, PubMed, and Scopus databases, and articles pertaining to history, its application and all those treating abdominal and gastrointestinal disorders were retrieved. Seventeen studies were identified, 13 involved children only. Eleven of these were randomised controlled trials (3 in adults). Four trials were from the one center, where each paper reported on different outcomes such as soiling, defecation frequency, quality of life, and colon transit studies from the one pool of children. All studies found statistically significant improvement in symptom reduction. However, weaknesses in study design were apparent in some. In particular, finding an adequate placebo to interferential current therapy has been difficult. Interferential current therapy shows potential as a novel, non-pharmacological and economical means of treating gastrointestinal dysfunction such as constipation. More studies are needed particularly in the adult population. However, the design of a suitable placebo is challenging.

Home-Based Transabdominal Interferential Electrical Stimulation for Six Months Improves Paediatric Slow Transit Constipation (STC)

BACKGROUND

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) for one to two months has produced some improvement in treatment-resistant slow-transit constipation (STC) in children. Optimal parameters for treatment are not known. It is possible that more improvement would occur with stimulation for longer. This study examined the effectiveness of stimulation for six months.

METHODS

Children with STC confirmed by nuclear transit study (NTS) were enrolled prospectively. All had chronic constipation for greater than two years and had failed medical treatment. TES was performed for one hour/day for six months using the INF 4160 (Fuji Dynamics) portable stimulator and 4 cm × 4 cm electrodes near the belly button and on the back. Families kept bowel diaries and completed PEDSQLCore QOL (4.0) questionnaires before and at end of treatment.

RESULTS

Sixty-two children (34 females; seven years, 2-16 year) with STC were studied. Defecation frequency increased in 57/62 (91%, mean ± SEM pre- 1.49 ± 0.20 vs. post- 3.25 ± 0.25 defecation/week, p < 0.0001) with the number with ≥3BA increasing from 6 to 37 (10-59%). Soiling frequency decreased from 4.8 to 1.1 days/week (p <0.001). Abdominal pain decreased from 1.7 to 0.3 days/week (<0.0001), and spontaneous urge to defecate improved. Quality of life (p < 0.01), mean transit index and gastric emptying on NTS improved (p < 0.005).

CONCLUSION

Treatment-resistant STC responds to TES using interferential current across the abdomen when given daily for many months. Battery operated stimulators allowed stimulation at home for an hour each day. Stimulation for six months produced clinically significant improvement in defecation frequency, soiling, abdominal pain, urge to defecate, and quality of life in half of these chronic patients.

Electroneurostimulation for the management of bladder bowel dysfunction in childhood

Both non-invasive and invasive electroneurostimulation (ENS) modalities for bladder bowel dysfunction have been studied and reported in children. A summary of the proposed mechanism of actions and the more commonly used and recently reported techniques and outcomes are described. This includes transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, functional electrical nerve stimulation, intravesical electrical nerve stimulation, percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation and sacral neuromodulation in conditions including overactive bladder, enuresis, dysfunctional voiding, constipation, combined bladder bowel dysfunction and neuropathic bladder and bowel dysfunction. There is a need for further high quality randomised trials as well as long-term outcomes to establish whether ENS is able to alter the long-term trajectory for an individual child with bladder bowel dysfunction.

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) for treatment of constipation in children

BACKGROUND

Childhood constipation is a common problem with substantial health, economic and emotional burdens. Existing therapeutic options, mainly pharmacological, are not consistently effective, and some are associated with adverse effects after prolonged use. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES), a non-pharmacological approach, is postulated to facilitate bowel movement by modulating the nerves of the large bowel via the application of electrical current transmitted through the abdominal wall.

OBJECTIVES

Our main objective was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of TES when employed to improve bowel function and constipation-related symptoms in children with constipation.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched MEDLINE (PubMed) (1950 to July 2015), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library, Issue 7, 2015), EMBASE (1980 to July 2015), the Cochrane IBD Group Specialized Register, trial registries and conference proceedings to identify applicable studies .

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials that assessed any type of TES, administered at home or in a clinical setting, compared to no treatment, a sham TES, other forms of nerve stimulation or any other pharmaceutical or non-pharmaceutical measures used to treat constipation in children were considered for inclusion.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed risk of bias of the included studies. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for categorical outcomes data and the mean difference (MD) and corresponding 95% CI for continuous outcomes. We evaluated the overall quality of the evidence supporting the outcomes assessed in this review using the GRADE criteria.

MAIN RESULTS

One study from Australia including 46 children aged 8 to 18 years was eligible for inclusion. There were multiple reports identified, including one unpublished report, that focused on different outcomes of the same study. The study had unclear risk of selection bias, high risks of performance, detection and attrition biases, and low risks of reporting biases.We are very uncertain about the effects of TES on bowel movements, colonic transit, soiling symptoms and quality of life due to high risk of bias, indirectness and imprecision. For our outcomes of interest the 95% CI of most analysis results include potential benefit and no effect. There is insufficient evidence to determine the effect of TES on bowel movements and colonic transit. The study reported that 16/21 children in the TES group and 15/21 in the sham group had > 3 complete spontaneous bowel movements (CSBM) per week (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.53; very low-quality evidence). Ten out of 14 children in the TES group had improved colonic transit compared to 1/7 in the sham group (RR 5.00, 95% CI 0.79 to 31.63; very low-quality evidence). Mean colonic transit rate, measured as the position of the geometric centre of the radioactive substance ingested along the intestinal tract, was higher in children who received TES compared to sham (MD 1.05, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.74; one study, 30 participants; very low-quality evidence). The radiological assessment of colonic transit outcomes means that these results might not translate to important improvement in clinical symptoms or increased bowel movements. There is insufficient evidence to determine the effect of TES on symptoms and quality of life (QoL) outcomes. Nine out of 13 children in the TES group had improved soiling-related symptoms compared to 4/12 sham participants (RR 2.08, 95% CI 0.86 to 5.00; very low-quality evidence). Four out of 8 TES participants reported an improvement in QoL compared to 1/8 sham participants (RR 4.00, 95% CI 0.56 to 28.40; very low-quality evidence). The effects of TES on self-perceived (MD 5.00, 95% CI -1.21 to 11.21; one study, 33 participants; very low-quality evidence) or parent-perceived QoL (MD -0.20, 95% CI -7.57 to 7.17, one study, 33 participants; very low-quality evidence) are uncertain. No adverse effects were reported in the included study.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The results for the outcomes assessed in this review are uncertain. Thus no firm conclusions regarding the efficacy and safety of TES in children with chronic constipation can be drawn. Further randomized controlled trials assessing TES for the management of childhood constipation should be conducted. Future trials should include clear documentation of methodologies, especially measures to evaluate the effectiveness of blinding, and incorporate patient-important outcomes such as the number of patients with improved CSBM, improved clinical symptoms and quality of life.

WITHDRAWN: Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) for treatment of constipation in children

BACKGROUND

Childhood constipation is a common problem with substantial health, economic and emotional burdens. Existing therapeutic options, mainly pharmacological, are not consistently effective, and some are associated with adverse effects after prolonged use. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES), a non-pharmacological approach, is postulated to facilitate bowel movement by modulating the nerves of the large bowel via the application of electrical current transmitted through the abdominal wall.

OBJECTIVES

Our main objective was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of TES when employed to improve bowel function and constipation-related symptoms in children with constipation.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched MEDLINE (PubMed) (1950 to July 2015), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library, Issue 7, 2015), EMBASE (1980 to July 2015), the Cochrane IBD Group Specialized Register, trial registries and conference proceedings to identify applicable studies .

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials that assessed any type of TES, administered at home or in a clinical setting, compared to no treatment, a sham TES, other forms of nerve stimulation or any other pharmaceutical or non-pharmaceutical measures used to treat constipation in children were considered for inclusion.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed risk of bias of the included studies. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for categorical outcomes data and the mean difference (MD) and corresponding 95% CI for continuous outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

One study from Australia including 46 children aged 8 to 18 years was eligible for inclusion. There were multiple reports identified, including one unpublished report, that focused on different outcomes of the same study. The study had unclear risk of selection bias, high risks of performance, detection and attrition biases, and low risks of reporting biases.There were no significant differences between TES and the sham control group for the following outcomes: i).number of children with > 3 complete spontaneous bowel movements (CSBM) per week (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.53, one study, 42 participants) (Quality of evidence: very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision ), ii). number of children with improved colonic transit assessed radiologically (RR 5.00, 95% CI 0.79 to 31.63; one study, 21 participants) (Quality of evidence: very low, due to high risk of bias, serious imprecision and indirectness of the outcome). However, mean colonic transit rate, measured as the position of the geometric centre of the radioactive substance ingested along the intestinal tract, was significantly higher in children who received TES compared to sham (MD 1.05, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.74; one study, 30 participants) (Quality of evidence: very low, due to high risk of bias , serious imprecision and indirectness of the outcome). There was no significant difference between the two groups in the number of children with improved soiling-related symptoms (RR 2.08, 95% CI 0.86 to 5.00; one study, 25 participants) (Quality of evidence: very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision). There was no significant difference in the number of children with improved quality of life (QoL) (RR 4.00, 95% CI 0.56 to 28.40; one study, 16 participants) (Quality of evidence: very low, due to high risk of bias issues and serious imprecision ). There were also no significant differences in in self-perceived (MD 5.00, 95% CI -1.21 to 11.21) or parent-perceived QoL (MD -0.20, 95% CI -7.57 to 7.17, one study, 33 participants for both outcomes) (Quality of evidence for both outcomes: very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision). No adverse effects were reported in the included study.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The results for the outcomes assessed in this review are uncertain. Thus no firm conclusions regarding the efficacy and safety of TES in children with chronic constipation can be drawn. Further randomized controlled trials assessing TES for the management of childhood constipation should be conducted. Future trials should include clear documentation of methodologies, especially measures to evaluate the effectiveness of blinding, and incorporate patient-important outcomes such as the number of patients with improved CSBM, improved clinical symptoms and quality of life.

Neurostimulation of the gastrointestinal tract in children: is it time to shock the gut?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The use of neurostimulation for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders has been growing over the past two to three decades. Our objective is to review current applications of neurostimulation in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders with an emphasis on the use of these treatment modalities in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Gastric electrical stimulation can lead to symptomatic improvement in children with chronic nausea and vomiting refractory to conventional treatment, and a recent report of long-term outcomes is encouraging. Sacral nerve stimulation can be effective in the treatment of children with constipation and fecal incontinence refractory to conventional treatment, and patient satisfaction with treatment remains high despite the risk of complications requiring further surgery. Abdominal transcutaneous electrical stimulation and posterior tibial nerve stimulation are noninvasive neurostimulation techniques that may be effective in the treatment of children with constipation and fecal incontinence.

SUMMARY

Although neurostimulation-based treatments appear promising and offer advantages compared to more invasive surgical treatment options, evidence for their benefit in children remains limited. High-quality studies demonstrating safety and efficacy and a better understanding of the mechanism of each modality are needed before there is more widespread acceptance of neurostimulation in the treatment of children with gastrointestinal disorders.

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) for treatment of constipation in children

BACKGROUND

Childhood constipation is a common problem with substantial health, economic and emotional burdens. Existing therapeutic options, mainly pharmacological, are not consistently effective, and some are associated with adverse effects after prolonged use. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES), a non-pharmacological approach, is postulated to facilitate bowel movement by modulating the nerves of the large bowel via the application of electrical current transmitted through the abdominal wall.

OBJECTIVES

Our main objective was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of TES when employed to improve bowel function and constipation-related symptoms in children with constipation.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched MEDLINE (PubMed) (1950 to July 2015), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (The Cochrane Library, Issue 7, 2015), EMBASE (1980 to July 2015), the Cochrane IBD Group Specialized Register, trial registries and conference proceedings to identify applicable studies .

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials that assessed any type of TES, administered at home or in a clinical setting, compared to no treatment, a sham TES, other forms of nerve stimulation or any other pharmaceutical or non-pharmaceutical measures used to treat constipation in children were considered for inclusion.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed studies for inclusion, extracted data and assessed risk of bias of the included studies. We calculated the risk ratio (RR) and corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for categorical outcomes data and the mean difference (MD) and corresponding 95% CI for continuous outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

One study from Australia including 46 children aged 8 to 18 years was eligible for inclusion. There were multiple reports identified, including one unpublished report, that focused on different outcomes of the same study. The study had unclear risk of selection bias, high risks of performance, detection and attrition biases, and low risks of reporting biases.There were no significant differences between TES and the sham control group for the following outcomes: i).number of children with > 3 complete spontaneous bowel movements (CSBM) per week (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.74 to 1.53, one study, 42 participants) (

QUALITY OF EVIDENCE

very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision ), ii). number of children with improved colonic transit assessed radiologically (RR 5.00, 95% CI 0.79 to 31.63; one study, 21 participants) (

QUALITY OF EVIDENCE

very low, due to high risk of bias, serious imprecision and indirectness of the outcome). However, mean colonic transit rate, measured as the position of the geometric centre of the radioactive substance ingested along the intestinal tract, was significantly higher in children who received TES compared to sham (MD 1.05, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.74; one study, 30 participants) (

QUALITY OF EVIDENCE

very low, due to high risk of bias , serious imprecision and indirectness of the outcome). There was no significant difference between the two groups in the number of children with improved soiling-related symptoms (RR 2.08, 95% CI 0.86 to 5.00; one study, 25 participants) (

QUALITY OF EVIDENCE

very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision). There was no significant difference in the number of children with improved quality of life (QoL) (RR 4.00, 95% CI 0.56 to 28.40; one study, 16 participants) (

QUALITY OF EVIDENCE

very low, due to high risk of bias issues and serious imprecision ). There were also no significant differences in in self-perceived (MD 5.00, 95% CI -1.21 to 11.21) or parent-perceived QoL (MD -0.20, 95% CI -7.57 to 7.17, one study, 33 participants for both outcomes) (QUALITY OF EVIDENCE for both outcomes: very low, due to high risk of bias and serious imprecision). No adverse effects were reported in the included study.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The very low quality evidence gathered in this review does not suggest that TES provides a benefit for children with chronic constipation. Further randomized controlled trials assessing TES for the management of childhood constipation should be conducted. Future trials should include clear documentation of methodologies, especially measures to evaluate the effectiveness of blinding, and incorporate patient-important outcomes such as the number of patients with improved CSBM, improved clinical symptoms and quality of life.

Home Transcutaneous Electrical Stimulation Therapy to Treat Children With Anorectal Retention: A Pilot Study

AIM

As transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) increased defecation in children and adults with Slow-Transit Constipation (STC), we performed a pilot study to test if TES can improve symptoms (defecation and soiling) in children with chronic constipation without STC and transit delay in the anorectum.

METHODS

Children with treatment-resistant constipation presenting to a tertiary hospital had gastrointestinal nuclear transit study (NTS) showing normal proximal colonic transit and anorectal holdup of tracer. TES was administered at home (1 hour/day for 3 months) using a battery-powered interferential stimulator, with four adhesive electrodes (4 × 4 cm) connected so currents cross within the lower abdomen at the level of S2-S4. Stimulation was added to existing laxatives. Daily continence diary, and quality-of-life questionnaires (PedsQL4.0) were compared before and after TES.

RESULTS

Ten children (4 females: 5-10 years, mean 8 years) had holdup in the anorectum by NTS. Nine had <3 bowel motions (BM)/week. After three months TES, defecation frequency increased in 9/10 (mean 0.9-4.1 BM/week, p = 0.004), with 6/9 improved to ≥3 BM/week. Soiling reduced in 9/10 from 5.9 to 1.9 days/week with soiling, p = 0.004. Ten were on laxatives, and nine reduced/stopped laxative use. Quality-of-life improved to within the normal range.

CONCLUSION

TES improved symptoms of constipation in >50% of children with treatment-resistant constipation with isolated holdup in the anorectum. Further studies (RCTs) are warranted in these children.

Application Failure Mode and Effects Analysis Reveals Failure Modes for Interferential Stimulation Therapy in Treating Chronic Constipation

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) is used to treat chronic constipation in the home environment. Incorrect application of TES may lead to ineffective therapy. We used an application failure mode and effects analysis (AFMEA) to analyze and rank problems. In developing mitigation options to minimize or eliminate failure modes, we identified design and engineering requirements for a new, simple-to-use stimulation system to deliver TES at home for treating chronic constipation, and educational material required to train clinicians, patients, and users. This provided a structured approach to the analysis and design of an improved device for treating chronic constipation.

CON-COUR study: Interferential therapy in the treatment of chronic constipation in adults: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Background

The prevalence of chronic constipation is about 15 % in Western countries with a significant impact on quality of life and health care costs. The first-line therapy, based on medical treatment combined with laxatives and dietary rules, is often disappointing. Interferential therapy is a new treatment that has demonstrated its efficiency in the treatment of chronic constipation in children and encouraging results in adults. The primary objective of this study is to assess the efficacy of interferential therapy during 8 weeks in adult patients. The secondary objectives are to assess this new and noninvasive therapy in terms of persistence of the clinical efficacy, colonic transit time, ano-rectal manometry, patient satisfaction and quality of life (QoL), and tolerance.

Methods/Design

Design: multicenter, prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double blind, two-parallel groups study. Setting: nine French adult gastroenterology centers. Inclusion criteria: adult patients with a history of chronic constipation refractory to medical treatment for at least 3 months. Treatment groups: (1) interferential-experimental group (effective stimulation); (2) placebo-control group (sham stimulation). Randomization: 1:1 allocation ratio. Evaluation times: inclusion (T0, randomization), baseline assessment (T1), start of stimulation (T2), intermediary assessment (T3, 4 weeks), end of stimulation (T4, 8 weeks), follow-up (T5 and T6, 1- and 6-month). Endpoints: (1) primary: short-term efficacy at T4 (treatment response defined as three or more spontaneous, complete bowel movements per week); (2) secondary: efficacy at T5 and T6, symptoms (Patient Assessment of Constipation Symptoms questionnaire), colonic transit time, anorectal manometry, patient satisfaction (analogical visual scale), patient QoL (Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life Questionnaire), side/unexpected effects. Sample size: 200 individuals to obtain 80 % power to detect a 20 % difference in treatment response at T4 between the two groups (15 % of lost to follow-up patients expected).

Discussion

The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design is the most appropriate to demonstrate the efficacy of a new experimental therapeutic (Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group classification). National and international recommendations could be updated based on the findings of this study.

Trial registration

Current controlled trials NCT02381665 (registration date: February 13, 2015).

Transcutaneous parasacral electrical stimulation vs oxybutynin for the treatment of overactive bladder in children: a randomized clinical trial

PURPOSE

We determined the effectiveness of 2 methods to treat overactive bladder in children using intragroup and intergroup comparisons in a randomized clinical trial.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine boys and 19 girls with a mean ± SD age of 6.4 ± 2.18 years were randomly divided into group 1-parasacral transcutaneous electrical stimulation with placebo drug and group 2-oxybutynin with sham scapular electrical therapy. Success was assessed by 1) the rate of complete symptom resolution, 2) a visual analog scale of 0 to 10, 3) the dysfunctional voiding score system, 4) voiding diary records, 5) Rome III criteria and 6) side effect frequency in each group.

RESULTS

A total of 13 and 15 patients were randomized to groups 1 and 2, respectively. Symptoms completely resolved in 6 patients in group 1 (46%) and 3 in group 2 (20%) (p = 0.204). A statistically significant improvement was found in the 2 groups in the dysfunctional voiding score system and voiding diary records. However, no statistically significant difference was found between the groups in the visual analog scale score, voiding frequency, and maximum and mean voided volume (p = 0.295, 0.098, 0.538 and 0.650, respectively). Constipation improved in 100% of group 1 patients but in only 55% in group 2 (p = 0.031 vs 0.073). Group 1 showed no side effects while dry mouth, hyperthermia and hyperemia developed in 58%, 25% and 50% of group 2 patients (p = 0.002, 0.096 and 0.005, respectively). Treatment was discontinued by 13.3% of patients in group 2.

CONCLUSIONS

Parasacral transcutaneous electrical stimulation was as effective as oxybutynin to treat overactive bladder in children. However, transcutaneous parasacral electrical stimulation was more effective against constipation and showed no detectable side effects. Oxybutynin was more effective for decreasing voiding frequency.

Transabdominal electrical stimulation (TES) for the treatment of slow-transit constipation (STC)

Slow-transit constipation (STC) is a newly described subtype of intractable constipation in children which we originally identified with deficiency of substance P in axons supplying the proximal colonic muscle. When nuclear transit studies became available, the patients were found to have slow proximal colonic transit, and responded to antegrade enemas. Using the appendicostomy, we found that there was reduced frequency in propagating sequences throughout the colon. We began testing whether transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) could improve motility and symptoms, and over several trials have now shown that TES is remarkably effective in treating children with STC, with long-lasting effects. TES holds promise for treating STC, as well as a range of gastrointestinal motility disorders.

Electrical stimulation therapy for slow transit constipation in children: a systematic review

PURPOSE

Slow transit constipation is a common disorder in children, which often does not respond well to ordinary treatments. We have conducted a systematic review of reported studies in order to better define the current state of knowledge about electrical stimulation treatment of slow transit constipation in children.

METHODS

We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, BioMed Central, and ISI Web of Knowledge with relevant terms; six studies, all from one center, met the criteria for inclusion. Two trials were randomized clinical trials, and four were prospective studies. The number of subjects included in the studies was 8 to 39, with ages 3 to 18 years.

RESULTS

Treatment sessions varied from 20 to 30 min 3 times per week to 1 h daily, and duration of therapy varied from 3 weeks to 6 months. Statistically significant improvements after electrical stimulation therapy were recorded in one to four outcome measures in each of the studies: frequency of defecation, soiling, Bristol Stool Scale, radionuclear transit studies, and quality of life; however, the improvements were of modest degree and of uncertain clinical significance. Quality assessment of the studies found various levels of bias, with attrition bias and reporting bias in all six.

CONCLUSIONS

This systemic review found moderate support for the effectiveness of electrical stimulation therapy in slow transit constipation in children. However, better-designed studies, with larger and more diverse patient populations followed for longer time periods, will be needed in order to reliably determine the efficacy of electrical stimulation therapy in the treatment of this disorder.

Transcutaneous Neuromodulation at Posterior Tibial Nerve and ST36 for Chronic Constipation

The aims of this study were to investigate the effects and possible mechanisms of transcutaneous neuromodulation (TN) in patients with chronic constipation. Twelve patients were recruited. The treatment consisted of 2-week TN and 2-week sham-TN which was performed in a crossover design. Bowel habit diary, Patient Assessment of Constipation Symptom (PAC-SYM), Patient Assessment of Constipation Quality of Life (PAC-QOL), and anorectal motility were evaluated. Electrocardiogram was recorded for the assessment of autonomic function during acute TN therapy. It was found that (1) TN improved the frequency of spontaneous defecation. After 2-week TN therapy, 83% patients had more than 3 times bowel movements per week which was significantly different from sham-TN (P = 0.01). (2) TN improved PAC-SYM and PAC-QOL scores (P < 0.001, resp.). (3) TN significantly decreased the threshold volume to elicit RAIR (P < 0.05), ameliorated rectal sensory threshold (P = 0.04), and maximum tolerance (P = 0.04). (4) TN, but not sham-TN, increased the vagal activity (P = 0.01 versus baseline) and decreased the sympathetic activity (P = 0.01, versus baseline). It was concluded that needleless TN at posterior tibial nerve and ST36 using a watch-size stimulator is effective in chronic constipation, and the effect was possibly mediated via the autonomic mechanism.

Lubiprostone for the treatment of functional constipation in children

OBJECTIVES

Pediatric functional constipation is common; effective, easily administered treatment options are limited. Lubiprostone is an oral chloride channel protein-2 activator that stimulates gastrointestinal fluid secretion, softens stools, and facilitates bowel movements (BMs). We evaluated the safety and effectiveness of lubiprostone in children and adolescents with functional constipation.

METHODS

Patients ≥12 kg, 17 years or younger, and with <3 spontaneous BMs (SBMs; ie, BMs that did not occur within 24 hours of rescue medication use) per week were enrolled at 22 US general pediatric and pediatric gastroenterology centers (January 2007-October 2008). Patients received 4 weeks of open-label lubiprostone at doses of 12 μg once daily (QD), 12 μg twice daily (BID), or 24 μg BID based on age and weight. The primary endpoint was SBM frequency during week 1 versus baseline.

RESULTS

Of 127 enrolled patients, 124 were treated and analyzed (12 μg QD, n = 27; 12 μg BID, n = 65; 24 μg BID, n = 32), and 109 completed the study. The mean age of treated patients was 10.2 years (range 3-17 years); 65 were boys. Mean SBM frequency significantly increased compared with baseline at week 1 (3.1 vs. 1.5 SBMs/week, P < 0.0001). SBM frequency was improved significantly from baseline overall (P < 0.0001) and for individual dose groups (P ≤ 0.0062) during weeks 2, 3, and 4. Common (≥5%) adverse events included nausea (18.5%), vomiting (12.1%), diarrhea (8.1%), abdominal pain (7.3%), and headache (5.6%). Two patients experienced serious adverse events (unrelated abdominal pain; unrelated sickle cell crisis).

CONCLUSIONS

Lubiprostone was efficacious and well tolerated in children and adolescents with functional constipation.

Evaluation of constipation after parasacral transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation in children with lower urinary tract dysfunction--a pilot study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of parasacral transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for the treatment of constipation in children with lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We treated 9 boys and 5 girls with a mean age of 8.07 ± 2.72 years. 10 (71.4%) had overactive bladder and 4 (28.6%) had voiding dysfunction. A total of 20 parasacral TENS sessions, 20 min each (10 Hz), were performed 3 times per week. The criteria used to assess constipation were the Rome III criteria for children, the Bristol Stool Chart, and a visual analog scale (pain from 0 to 10). The children were reassessed immediately after treatment. No specific treatment of constipation was performed.

RESULTS

After treatment, 85.7% (p < 0.001) of the children's constipation symptoms had improved following the Rome III criteria. Parasacral TENS significantly impacted the following symptoms: "the presence of at least one episode of fecal incontinence per week", "history of stool retention", and "the presence of a large fecal mass in the rectum." There was no significant change in the Bristol Stool Chart evaluation (p < 0.25), but there was a significant improving trend in level of pain before and after treatment (p < 0.063). All urinary symptoms evaluated showed improvement after TENS treatment. There was a decrease in post-void residual urine.

CONCLUSION

In this first study to evaluate the results of parasacral TENS on constipation in children with LUTD, satisfactory results were obtained for both complaints.

Management of functional constipation in children with lower urinary tract symptoms: report from the Standardization Committee of the International Children's Continence Society

PURPOSE

We present a consensus view of members of the International Children's Continence Society (ICCS) together with pediatric gastroenterologists, experts in the field of functional gastrointestinal disorders, on the management of functional constipation in children with lower urinary tract symptoms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Discussions were held by the board of the ICCS and a multidisciplinary core group of authors was appointed. The draft document review process was open to all ICCS members via the website. Feedback was considered by the core authors and, by agreement, amendments were made as necessary.

RESULTS

Guidelines on the assessment, and pharmacological and nonpharmacological management of functional constipation in children with lower urinary tract symptoms are outlined.

CONCLUSIONS

The final document is not a systematic literature review. It includes relevant research when available, as well as expert opinion on the current understanding of functional constipation in children with lower urinary tract symptoms. The document is intended to be clinically useful in primary, secondary and tertiary care settings.

Interferential therapy: a new treatment for slow transit constipation. a pilot study in adults

AIM

The study aimed to assess, for the first time, the effectiveness of interferential therapy (IFT) in the treatment of slow transit constipation in adults and its impact on the quality of life.

METHOD

All consecutive patients with slow transit constipation diagnosed by symptomology and a colonic transit time (CTT) of > 100 h measured with radiopaque markers were included in this prospective study. IFT was performed for 1 h/day over 3 months. Clinical improvement was based on the stool diary and the Knowles-Eccersley-Scott Symptom and Cleveland Clinic Constipation Scores. Quality of life was assessed with the Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index questionnaire.

RESULTS

Eleven patients with a median age of 51 years were included. At the end of the follow-up period, seven (63.6%) had significantly improved after IFT with a median of 0.66 stools per week [interquartile range (IQR) 0.33-0.66] before treatment and 1.66 (IQR 1.33-1.66) after (P = 0.007). The Knowles-Eccersley-Scott Symptom score changed from 30 (IQR 27-33) before treatment to 19 (IQR 17-26) after treatment (P = 0.005) and the Cleveland Clinic Constipation Score from 26 (IQR 25-28) to 17 (IQR 13-24; P = 0.005). The CTT improved from 103 h (IQR 101-113) to 98 h (IQR 94-107; P = 0.02). The Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index score improved from 60 (IQR 57-63) to 95 (IQR 68-100; P = 0.005).

CONCLUSION

IFT is a new non-invasive treatment for slow transit constipation. Further studies to confirm these results with longer follow-up are necessary.

Transabdominal electrical stimulation increases colonic propagating pressure waves in paediatric slow transit constipation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In slow-transit constipation (STC) pancolonic manometry shows significantly reduced antegrade propagating sequences (PS) and no response to physiological stimuli. This study aimed to determine whether transcutaneous electrical stimulation using interferential current (IFC) applied to the abdomen increased colonic PS in STC children.

METHODS

Eight children (8-18 years) with confirmed STC had 24-h colonic manometry using a water-perfused, 8-channel catheter with 7.5 cm sidehole distance introduced via appendix stomas. They then received 12 sessions (20 min/3× per week) of IFC stimulation (2 paraspinal and 2 abdominal electrodes), applied at a comfortable intensity (<40 mA, carrier frequency 4 kHz, varying beat frequency 80-150 Hz). Colonic manometry was repeated 2 (n=6) and 7 (n=2) months after IFC.

RESULTS

IFC significantly increased frequency of total PS/24h (mean ± SEM, pre 78 ± 34 vs post 210 ± 62, p=0.008, n=7), antegrade PS/24h (43 ± 16 vs 112 ± 20, p=0.01) and high amplitude PS (HAPS/24h, 5 ± 2:10 ± 3, p=0.04), with amplitude, velocity, or propagating distance unchanged. There was increased activity on waking and 4/8 ceased using antegrade continence enemas.

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

Transcutaneous IFC increased colonic PS frequency in STC children with effects lasting 2-7 months. IFC may provide a treatment for children with treatment-resistant STC.

Efeitos do ΔF sobre a acomodação da corrente interferencial em sujeitos saudáveis

OBJETIVO: Avaliar em quanto tempo ocorre acomodação da corrente interferencial (CI), e quantas vezes essa acomodação acontece em 10 minutos usando diferentes padrões de variações na frequência de estimulação: ∆F nulo = 0, ∆F baixo = 30% e ∆F alto = 70%. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Ensaio clínico cruzado, com 15 voluntários saudáveis, com idade média de 22,53 ± 0,91 anos, de ambos os gêneros. Os pacientes foram submetidos a CI por 10 minutos na forma bipolar com os eletrodos longitudinalmente dispostos sobre as vértebras L1 e S1. OS PARÂMETROS DO EQUIPAMENTO FORAM: frequência base de 4.000Hz, AMF 100Hz, rampa de entrega do ΔF 1:1, ΔF dependendo do dia e do subgrupo, por 10 minutos. Foi avaliado o limiar de acomodação e quantas vezes a corrente acomodou no tempo total de estimulação. RESULTADOS: Para o tempo da primeira acomodação e pelo número de acomodações, não houve diferença significativa (p > 0,05). CONCLUSÃO: Observou-se que não houve efeito com a variação dos diferentes ∆F analisados.

The impact of transcutaneous electrical stimulation therapy on appendicostomy operation rates for children with chronic constipation--a single-institution experience

PURPOSE

Appendicostomy for antegrade continence enema is a minimally invasive surgical intervention that has helped many children with chronic constipation. At our institution, since 2006, transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) has been trialed to treat slow-transit constipation (STC) in children. This retrospective audit aimed to determine if TES use affected appendicostomy-formation rates and to monitor changes in practice. We hypothesized that appendicostomy rates have decreased for STC but not for other indications.

METHODS

Appendicostomy-formation rate was determined for the 5 years before and after 2006. Children were identified as STC or non-STC from nuclear transit scintigraphy and patient records.

RESULTS

Since 1999, 317 children were diagnosed with STC using nuclear transit scintigraphy with 121 during 2001 to 2005 (24.2/year) and 147 during 2006 to 2010 (29.4/year). Seventy-four children had appendicostomy formation. For 2001 to 2005, appendicostomy-formation rates for STC and non-STC children were similar: 5.4 per year (n = 27) and 4.8 per year (n = 24), respectively. For 2006 to 2010, appendicostomy-formation rates were 1.2 per year (n = 6) for STC and 3.2 per year (n = 16) for non-STC (χ(2), P = .04).

CONCLUSION

Since 2006, appendicostomy-formation rates have significantly reduced in STC but not in non-STC children at our institute, coinciding with the introduction of TES as an alternative treatment for STC. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation has not been tested on non-STC children in this period.

How common is colonic elongation in children with slow-transit constipation or anorectal retention?

PURPOSE

Colonic elongation is reported as a possible cause for slow colonic transit, as it is observed in patients with slow-transit constipation (STC). This study aimed to determine the frequency of colonic elongation in children with STC or anorectal retention using radioimaging. We hypothesized that transverse colon elongation may occur in patients with STC, whereas sigmoid colon elongates in patients with anorectal retention.

METHODS

Nuclear transit scintigraphy performed for chronic constipation (1999-2011) was analyzed qualitatively for elongated transverse colon or sigmoid colon. Three major colonic transit patterns were identified: slow transit in the proximal colon (STC), normal proximal colonic transit with anorectal retention (NT-AR), and rapid proximal transit ± anorectal retention (RT). χ(2) Test was used for statistical analysis (P < .05 significant).

RESULTS

From 1999 to 2011, 626 children had nuclear transit scintigraphy. Transverse colon elongation occurred more frequently in STC (73/322, or 23%) compared with NT-AR (9/127, or 7%) and RT (5/177, or 3%; P < .0001). Sigmoid colon elongation was equally common in NT-AR (8/127, or 6%) compared with RT (10/177, or 6%) and STC (14/322, or 4%; P < .9).

CONCLUSION

Transverse colon elongation is more common in STC (23%), whereas sigmoid colon elongation is not more common in anorectal retention. Colonic elongation may be the cause or the result of the underlying slow colonic transit.

Home transcutaneous electrical stimulation to treat children with slow-transit constipation

PURPOSE

This study aimed to test the effectiveness of home transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) when patients with slow-transit constipation (STC) were trained by a naive clinician.

METHODS

A surgeon was trained to teach the TES method to STC children who then self-administered at home (1 hour a day, 3-6 months) using a battery-powered interferential stimulator. Bowel diaries, PedsQL4.0 questionnaires, and radio-nuclear colonic transit studies were completed before and after treatment.

RESULTS

Thirty-two children (16 female; mean age, 8.3 years; range, 3-17 years) self-administered 3 to 6 months of TES. Three did not return diaries. Group 1 (n = 13) started with less than 3 bowel actions per week, and group 2 (n = 16), with more than 3 bowel actions per week. Defecation frequency increased in 69% of group 1 (mean, 1.4-3.0 per week; P = .02). Soiling frequency decreased in 50% of group 2 (5.4-1.9 per week, P = .04). Of 13 patients, 7 improved with development of urge-initiated defecation. Abdominal pain decreased in 48% (1.6 episodes per week to 0.9 per week, P = .06). Stool consistency improved in 56%. There was significant improvement in child-reported and parent-reported PedsQL Scores. Colonic transit improved in 13 of 25 patients.

CONCLUSION

Home TES provides a new treatment for STC children, with 50% of treatment-resistant patients benefited. Success requires clinician training and close patient contact. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation increased defecation and reduced soiling.

Sacral neuromodulation therapy: a promising treatment for adolescents with refractory functional constipation

BACKGROUND

Sacral neuromodulation therapy has been successfully applied in adult patients with urinary and fecal incontinence and in adults with constipation not responding to intensive conservative treatment. No data, however, are available on sacral neuromodulation therapy as a treatment option in adolescents with refractory functional constipation.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to describe the short-term results of sacral neuromodulation in adolescents with chronic functional constipation refractory to intensive conservative treatment.

DESIGN

This is a retrospective review.

SETTING

This study took place at the Department of Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Centre, The Netherlands.

PATIENTS

Thirteen patients (all girls, age 10-18 years) with functional constipation according to the ROME III criteria not responding to intensive oral and rectal laxative treatment were assigned for sacral neuromodulation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

When improvement of symptoms was observed during the testing phase, a permanent stimulator was implanted. Patients were prospectively followed up to at least 6 months after implantation of the permanent stimulator by interviews, bowel diaries, and Cleveland Clinic constipation score. Improvement was defined as spontaneous defecation ≥ 2 times a week.

RESULTS

At presentation, none of the patients had spontaneous defecation or felt the urge to defecate. All patients had severe abdominal pain. Regular school absenteeism was present in 10 patients. After the testing phase, all but 2 patients had spontaneous defecation ≥ 2 times a week with a reduction in abdominal pain. After implantation, 11 (of 12) had a normal spontaneous defecation pattern of ≥ 2 times a week without medication, felt the urge to defecate, and perceived less abdominal pain without relapse of symptoms until 6 months after implantation. The average Cleveland Clinic constipation score decreased from 20.9 to 8.4. One lead revision and 2 pacemaker relocations were necessary.

LIMITATIONS

This study is limited by its small sample size, single-institution bias, and retrospective nature.

CONCLUSION

Sacral neuromodulation appears to be a promising new treatment option in adolescents with refractory functional constipation not responding to intensive conservative therapy. Larger randomized studies with long-term follow-up are required.

Long-term effects of transabdominal electrical stimulation in treating children with slow-transit constipation

AIMS

Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TES) was used to treat children with slow-transit constipation (STC) for 1 to 2 months in a randomized controlled trial during 2006 to 2008. We aimed to determine long-term outcomes, hypothesizing that TES produced sustained improvement.

METHODS

Physiotherapists administered 1 to 2 months of TES to 39 children (20 minutes, 3 times a week). Fifteen continued to self-administer TES (30 minutes daily for more than 2 months). Mean long-term follow-up of 30 of 39 patients was conducted using questionnaire review 3.5 years (range 1.9-4.7 years) later. Outcomes were evaluated by confidence intervals or paired t test.

RESULTS

Seventy-three percent of patients perceived improvement, lasting more than 2 years in 33% and less than 6 months in 25% to 33%. Defecation frequency improved in 30%. Stools got wetter in 62% after stimulation and then drier again. Soiling improved in 75% and abdominal pain in 59%. Laxative use stopped in 52%, and 43% with appendicostomies stopped washouts. Soiling/Holschneider continence score improved in 81% (P = .0002). Timed sits switched to urge-initiated defecations in 80% patients. Eighty percent of relapsed patients elected to have home stimulation.

CONCLUSION

TES holds promise for STC children. Improvement occurred in two thirds of children, lasting more than 2 years in one third, whereas symptoms recurred after 6 months in one third of children.