Fabrication of poly (methyl methacrylate)/Ce/Cu substituted apatite/Egg white (Ovalbumin) biocomposite owning adjustable properties: Towards bone tissue rejuvenation

The Chicken Egg: An Advanced Material for Tissue Engineering

The chicken egg, an excellent natural source of proteins, has been an overlooked native biomaterial with remarkable physicochemical, structural, and biological properties. Recently, with significant advances in biomedical engineering, particularly in the development of 3D in vitro platforms, chicken egg materials have increasingly been investigated as biomaterials due to their distinct advantages such as their low cost, availability, easy handling, gelling ability, bioactivity, and provision of a developmentally stimulating environment for cells. In addition, the chicken egg and its by-products can improve tissue engraftment and stimulate angiogenesis, making it particularly attractive for wound healing and tissue engineering applications. Evidence suggests that the egg white (EW), egg yolk (EY), and eggshell membrane (ESM) are great biomaterial candidates for tissue engineering, as their protein composition resembles mammalian extracellular matrix proteins, ideal for cellular attachment, cellular differentiation, proliferation, and survivability. Moreover, eggshell (ES) is considered an excellent calcium resource for generating hydroxyapatite (HA), making it a promising biomaterial for bone regeneration. This review will provide researchers with a concise yet comprehensive understanding of the chicken egg structure, composition, and associated bioactive molecules in each component and introduce up-to-date tissue engineering applications of chicken eggs as biomaterials.

Poly(methyl methacrylate) in Orthopedics: Strategies, Challenges, and Prospects in Bone Tissue Engineering

Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) is widely used in orthopedic applications, including bone cement in total joint replacement surgery, bone fillers, and bone substitutes due to its affordability, biocompatibility, and processability. However, the bone regeneration efficiency of PMMA is limited because of its lack of bioactivity, poor osseointegration, and non-degradability. The use of bone cement also has disadvantages such as methyl methacrylate (MMA) release and high exothermic temperature during the polymerization of PMMA, which can cause thermal necrosis. To address these problems, various strategies have been adopted, such as surface modification techniques and the incorporation of various bioactive agents and biopolymers into PMMA. In this review, the physicochemical properties and synthesis methods of PMMA are discussed, with a special focus on the utilization of various PMMA composites in bone tissue engineering. Additionally, the challenges involved in incorporating PMMA into regenerative medicine are discussed with suitable research findings with the intention of providing insightful advice to support its successful clinical applications.

Surgical cotton microfibers loaded with proteins and apatite: A potential platform for bone tissue engineering

Tissue engineering has emerged as the best alternative to replacing damaged tissue/organs. However, the cost of scaffold materials continues to be a significant obstacle; thus, developing inexpensive scaffolds is strongly encouraged. In this study, cellulose microfibers (C), gelatin (G), egg white (EW), and nanohydroxyapatite (nHA) were assembled into a quaternary scaffold using EDC-NHS crosslinking, followed by freeze-drying method. Cellulose microfibers as a scaffold have only received a limited amount of research due to the absence of an intrinsic three-dimensional structure. Gelatin, more likely to interact chemically with collagen, was used to provide a stable structure to the cellulose microfibers. EW was supposed to provide the scaffold with numerous cell attachment sites. nHA was chosen to enhance the scaffold's bone-bonding properties. Physico-chemical, mechanical, and biological characterization of scaffolds were studied. In-vitro using MG-63 cells and in-ovo studies revealed that all scaffolds were biocompatible. The results of the DPPH assay demonstrate the ability of CGEWnHA to reduce free radicals. The CGEWnHA scaffold exhibits the best properties with 56.84 ± 28.45 μm average pore size, 75 ± 1.4 % porosity, 39.23 % weight loss, 109.19 ± 0.98 kPa compressive modulus, and 1.72 Ca/P ratio. As a result, the constructed CGEWnHA scaffold appears to be a viable choice for BTE applications.

Fabrication and characterization of three-dimensional polycaprolactone/sodium alginate and egg whites and eggshells hybrid scaffold in bone tissue engineering

The aim of this study was to fabricate three-dimensional bone scaffolds using polycaprolactone and egg shell powder. The scaffolds were coated with sodium alginate/egg white. SEM was used to investigate egg shell particles on the surface of each string of scaffolds. The presence of calcium carbonate in the scaffold structure was confirmed by microstructural analyses employing XRD. Egg shell-related functional groups were discovered using FTIR investigations. Bone cells were used to conduct biocompatibility tests on scaffolds (MG-63). Finally, scaffolds with the highest proportion of egg whites and eggshells have the best cell survival rate. It may be concluded that the PCL/7% Esh/15% Ew scaffold is a good option for application in bone tissue engineering.

Avian Egg: A Multifaceted Biomaterial for Tissue Engineering

Most components in avian eggs, offering a natural and environmentally friendly source of raw materials, hold great potential in tissue engineering. An avian egg consists of several beneficial elements: the protective eggshell, the eggshell membrane, the egg white (albumen), and the egg yolk (vitellus). The eggshell is mostly composed of calcium carbonate and has intrinsic biological properties that stimulate bone repair. It is a suitable precursor for the synthesis of hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate, which are particularly relevant for bone tissue engineering. The eggshell membrane is a thin protein-based layer with a fibrous structure and is constituted of several valuable biopolymers, such as collagen and hyaluronic acid, that are also found in the human extracellular matrix. As a result, the eggshell membrane has found several applications in skin tissue repair and regeneration. The egg white is a protein-rich material that is under investigation for the design of functional protein-based hydrogel scaffolds. The egg yolk, mostly composed of lipids but also diverse essential nutrients (e.g., proteins, minerals, vitamins), has potential applications in wound healing and bone tissue engineering. This review summarizes the advantages and status of each egg component in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, but also covers their current limitations and future perspectives.

Effect of Cu Ions Implantation on Structural, Electronic, Optical and Dielectric Properties of Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

In this work, the effect of ion bombardment on the optical properties of Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) was studied. Polymer samples were implanted with 500 keV Cu⁺ ions with a fluence ranging from 1 × 10¹² to 1 × 10¹⁴ ions/cm². X-ray Diffractometer (XRD) study indicated a relatively lower variation with a higher dose of ions. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra exhibited that with the implantation of Cu ions the intensity of existing bands decreases, while the result confirms the existence of a C=C group. The pristine and ion-implanted samples were also investigated using photoluminescence (PL) and Ultra Violet-Visible (UV-VIS) spectra. The optical band gap (E_g) was observed up to 3.05 eV for the implanted samples, while the pristine sample exhibited a wide energy-gap up to ~3.9 eV. The change in the optical gap indicated the presence of a gradual phase transition for the polymer blends. The dielectric measurements of the pristine and Cu-implanted PMMA were investigated in the 10 Hz to 2 GHz frequency range. It was found that the implanted samples showed a significant decrease in the value of the dielectric constant. The value of the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of the PMMA and Cu-implanted samples at a 1-kHz frequency were found to be ~300 and 29, respectively. The modification of the PMMA energy bandgap in the current research suggested the potential use of Cu implanted PMMA in the field of optical communications and flexible electronic devices.

Biological and microbiological behavior of calcium aluminate cement-based blend for filling of bone defects

Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) as a biomaterial has been evaluated for its physical, mechanical and biocompatibility properties. Furthermore, the application of CAC for bone repair is due to its composition and coefficient of thermal expansion, which is similar to that of human bone. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate compositions of CAC-based blends as substitutes for bone defects. Five compositions of blends (alumina, zirconia, hydroxyapatite, tricalcium phosphate, chitosan), in addition to the base cement consisting of homogeneous CAC were evaluated as a substitute for bone repair. Additionally, the monotypic biofilm formation was assessed. Creation of a monocortical bone defect was performed on the femurs of rats, which were randomly filled with the different materials. The polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) group was used as a control. All the animals were euthanized 04 weeks after the surgery procedure. Subsequently, computerized microtomography, histological and histomorphometric analyses were performed to verify the bone repair. To evaluate the formation of biofilms, reference strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were cultured on the samples, and the biofilm formed was quantified by the MTT method. In the microtomography and histomorphometry results, it was observed that the blends exhibited better results than the control group, with statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) for alumina and zirconia blends. In the biofilm formation, a statistical difference (p < 0.05) in general was observed between the alumina blends and the control group (p < 0.05). It was concluded that CAC-based blends with alumina and zirconia are promising for use in fillings for bone repair.