Systematic review of bladder cancer outcomes in patients with spina bifida

Mortality rates, cause and risk factors in people with spina bifida, register-based study over five decades

AIM

Care for people with spina bifida can be improved. This may be done by evaluating mortality rates and causes of death.

METHODS

Between 1973 and 2021, 1735 people with spina bifida appeared in registers of the Swedish population. Survival rates and causes of death were calculated according to age and decade.

RESULTS

Over almost 50 years, the prevalence of spina bifida decreased from 5.2 to 1.2 per 10 000 births. Mortality fell sharply during the first year of life, with survival rising from 75% to 94%. For children aged 2-18 years and adults, mortality rates were low and differences between decades were minimal. Causes of childhood deaths were congenital abnormalities, hydrocephalus and infections, the latter two also in adults. Adult causes also included self-inflicted injuries and substance abuse, with suicidal or unclear intent, both more common than in the general population. Bladder malignancies were also more frequent, although after reconstructive bladder surgery, mortality rates were similar.

CONCLUSION

Survival in the first year of life increased in children with spina bifida, whereas there was no difference in survival rates between adults born between 1973 and 1999. For adults, proactive prevention methods regarding self-inflicted injury, substance abuse and bladder cancer are warranted.

[Oncological relevance of neuro-urological diseases]

Apart from a few exceptions, there is currently little scientific evidence on the oncological relevance of neuro-urological diseases. Most research has been conducted into the association between long-term spinal cord injury with its consequences for the lower urinary tract and the occurrence of bladder cancer. These cancers differ in many ways from bladder cancers in patients without spinal cord injury: patients are 20 years younger on average, tumours are very often already muscle-invasive and poorly differentiated with a high proportion of squamous cell carcinomas, and the prognosis is poor. These characteristics also occur in spinal cord injury patients without permanent catheter drainage of the urinary bladder. Although the pathophysiological association has not been clarified in detail, the presence of a neurogenic bladder appears to be the decisive link between spinal cord injury and the occurrence of bladder cancer. Pathological pressure conditions in the urinary bladder and frequent urinary tract infections or asymptomatic bacteriuria resulting from neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction could be the decisive pathophysiological factors. In this respect, urinary bladder cancer in persons with a chronic spinal cord injury represents a model tumour after denervation. The clinically important question of screening requires future interdisciplinary research approaches.

Transitioning young adults with spina bifida: Challenges and paths to success

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Recent medical advances, including closure of myelomeningocele defects, shunting of hydrocephalus, and focusing on renal preservation have led to many individuals with spina bifida (SB) living into adulthood. This has led to more individuals with SB transitioning their care from pediatric-based to adult-based care models.

OBJECTIVE

We seek to explore the process of transition, with a focus on difficulties in transitioning individuals with SB. Additionally, we explore new problems that arise during the period of transition related to sexual function and dysfunction. We also discuss some of the difficulties managing neurogenic bladder and the sequalae of their prior urologic surgeries.

STUDY DESIGN

Each of the authors was asked to provide a summary, based on current literature, to highlight the challenges faced in their area of expertise.

CONCLUSIONS

Transitioning care for individuals with SB is especially challenging due to associated neurocognitive deficits and neuropsychological functioning issues. Sexual function is an important component of transition that must be addressed in young adults with SB. Management of neurogenic bladder in adults with SB can be challenging due to the heterogeneity of the population and the sequelae of their prior urologic surgeries. The aim is to ensure that all individuals with SB receive appropriate, evidence-based care throughout their lifetime.

[Urinary Bladder Cancer as a Long-term Sequela of Spinal Cord Injury - Relevance to Practice]

Urinary bladder cancer is the second most common tumour disease after lung cancer leading to death in people with a spinal cord injury. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the differences relevant to urologists between urinary bladder tumours in this population compared with urinary bladder tumours in the general population.People with a spinal cord injury are 1 to 2 decades younger on average at the time of tumour diagnosis than patients without a spinal cord injury. Histopathologic findings at the initial diagnosis of urinary bladder cancer in people with a spinal cord injury are much less favourable than for urinary bladder cancers in the general population. Muscle-invasive tumours and tumours with poor differentiation are much more common, and the proportion of squamous cell carcinomas is significantly higher. The incidence rises after more than 10 years of paralysis. Urinary bladder cancer mortality is significantly elevated and increases with the duration of paralysis. In diagnostic procedures and, in particular, in radical cystectomy, clinically important features have to be considered. For example, urodynamic examinations or cystoscopy may trigger autonomic dysreflexia with hypertensive crises and the risk of life-threatening bradycardia.In the case of radical cystectomy, frequent adhesions and callosities of the urinary bladder, among other things, must be taken into account intraoperatively. Severe paralysis, prolonged intestinal atony and other conditions are frequently observed after the surgical procedure due to neurogenic bowel dysfunction. Correct positioning of the patient immediately after surgery to avoid decubitus and to support breathing, as well as bowel management specific to spinal cord injury, must be strictly observed.Other special features of paraplegic patients with urinary bladder cancer that should also be considered in clinical practice, as well as considerations for screening for urinary bladder tumors, are presented in the article.

Artificial urinary sphincter in congenital neuropathic bladder: Very long-term outcomes

OBJECTIVE

Artificial urinary sphincter has been used to treat urinary incontinence in children with neuropathic bladder, although there are few studies reporting very long-term results. We assess our experience over the last 27 years in the management of artificial urinary sphincter.

METHODS

A retrospective study was performed in patients with neuropathic bladder in whom an artificial urinary sphincter was placed in our institution between 1994 and 2020. Demographic variables, pre- and post-artificial urinary sphincter implantation urodynamic studies, long-term outcomes, and postoperative complications were collected.

RESULTS

An artificial urinary sphincter was implanted in 71 patients (median age 14.5; interquartile range 12.8-15.9), with a median follow-up time of 17.2 years (interquartile range 9.8-23.9 years). Thirty-nine patients underwent enterocystoplasty combined with artificial urinary sphincter placement and 32 underwent artificial urinary sphincter implantation alone, of whom 12 patients (16.9%) eventually required an enterocystoplasty because of unexpected bladder behavior changes, usually within 3 years of artificial urinary sphincter implantation. Adequate urinary continence was reported in 90.1% of patients, nine void their bladders spontaneously, and 62 need clean intermittent catheterization. Eighteen mechanical malfunctions occurred in 15 patients (21.1%), with an average artificial urinary sphincter working life of 15.1 ± 1.3 years. In five patients artificial urinary sphincter was removed due to infection or erosion. In 12 patients (30.8%), a continent catheterizable stoma was made (before or during the follow-up) because of problems with clean intermittent catheterization through the urethra.

CONCLUSION

The very long-term results of this study demonstrate that artificial urinary sphincter is an effective treatment for urinary incontinence in neuropathic bladder patients. Long-term follow-up is important to identify potential unexpected changes in bladder behavior in these patients.

Bladder cancer in patients with neurogenic bladder disorder: a comparative study of different etiologies

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to conduct a comparative study of different etiologies of neurogenic bladder disorders (NBDs) in patients with bladder cancer (BC) regarding patient- and tumor-related parameters and their oncological outcome.

METHODS

Out of 98 patients with bladder tumors and neurogenic disease, 23 patients with BC and NBDs from Jan 1, 2010, to Dec 31, 2020, were included. The different etiologies of NBDs were merged in three groups based on the level of the nervous system (NS)-lesion: (i) central (n = 6), (ii) spinal cord (n = 10), and (iii) peripheral lesions (n = 7).

RESULTS

Patients with lesions at the spinal cord level were younger at the time of BC diagnosis compared to patients with central or peripheral NS lesions (54 vs. 68 vs. 78 years, p = 0.0219). However, the latency to malignant transformation was more than twice as long (33 vs. 15 years, p = 0.0108). Most tumors were muscle-invasive or locally advanced BCs (62%) and presented lymph node metastases (55%), resulting in a poor mean overall survival of 30.9 ± 3.6 months. No significant differences regarding histopathology, tumor stage, and oncological outcome could be observed between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Patients with NBDs have a poor prognosis regardless of their etiology or the level of NS lesion. Patients with spinal cord lesions, including congenital NBDs, appear to develop BC at a young age, but compared to other etiologies latency from NBD to BC is longer.

Bladder Cancer in a Long-term Survivor of the Prune Belly Syndrome

Prune belly syndrome (PBS) is a rare but morbid complexity of congenital anomalies that consists of abdominal wall defect, bilateral cryptorchidism, and urinary tract dilation. With the recent advances in perinatal care, the life expectancy of patients with PBS has improved. Although renal and sexual outcomes are frequently discussed in the literature, little is known about urinary tract malignancies in adulthood. Herein, we present a case of advanced bladder cancer in a 38-year-old man with PBS. To the best of our knowledge, a malignant tumor arising in a nondefunctionalized or nonaugmented bladder in patients with PBS has not been reported previously.

Squamous cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis in a patient with long-term spinal cord injury-a case report

INTRODUCTION

For individuals with spinal cord injury/disease (SCI/D) the risk of developing a stone in the upper urinary tract is up to six times higher than in the able-bodied population. Upper urinary tract carcinomas, in general, are rare and account for only 5-10% of all urinary tract carcinomas. It is believed that chronic upper urinary tract irritation caused by e.g., kidney stones or recurrent upper urinary tract infections may be associated with an increased risk of renal squamous cell carcinoma (RSCC).

CASE PRESENTATION

We report on a 64-year-old male who suffered a spinal cord injury in 1981 resulting in a complete sensory and motor impairment below T6, AIS A. Recurrent left-sided kidney stone disease had to be treated repeatedly from 1984 onwards. Despite repeated surgical attempts, it was ultimately not possible to achieve stone clearance in the long term. Within the concept of life-long surveillance of SCI/D, the patient was examined regularly, including ultrasound examinations of the kidneys. Six months after the last control examination, the patient was admitted to our hospital with a locally advanced tumor of the left kidney, so that only the option of palliative treatment remained. Histologically an RSCC was found.

DISCUSSION

As people with SCI/D have a higher risk of developing kidney stones, it is of utmost importance to check regularly for stone disease and, if necessary, treat with the aim of long-term stone clearance in order to protect renal function and to avert potentially malignant changes at an early stage.

Urinary bladder cancer as a late sequela of traumatic spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is also a combat-related injury that is increasing in modern warfare. The aim of this work is to inform medical experts regarding the different course of bladder cancer in able-bodied patients compared with SCI patients based on the latest medical scientific knowledge, and to present decision-making aids for the assessment of bladder cancer as a late sequela of traumatic SCI.

METHODS

A study conducted between January 1998 and December 2019 in the BG Trauma Hospital Hamburg formed the basis for the decision-making aids. Urinary bladder cancer was diagnosed in 40 out of 7396 treated outpatient and inpatient SCI patients. General patient information, latency period, age at initial diagnosis, type of bladder management and survival of SCI patients with bladder cancer were collected and analysed. T category, grading and tumour entity in these patients were compared with those in the general population. Relevant bladder cancer risk factors in SCI patients were analysed. Furthermore, relevant published literature was taken into consideration.

RESULTS

Initial diagnosis of urinary bladder cancer in SCI patients occurs at a mean age of 56.4 years (SD ± 10.7 years), i.e., approximately 20 years earlier as compared with the general population. These bladder cancers are significantly more frequently muscle invasive (i.e., T category ≥ T2) and present a higher grade at initial diagnosis. Furthermore, SCI patients show a significantly higher proportion of the more aggressive squamous cell carcinoma than that of the general population in areas not endemic for the tropical disease schistosomiasis. Consequently, the survival time is extremely unfavourable. A very important finding, for practical reasons is that, in the Hamburg study as well as in the literature, urinary bladder cancer is more frequently observed after 10 years or more of SCI. Based on these findings, a matrix was compiled where the various influencing factors, either for or against the recognition of an association between SCI and urinary bladder cancer, were weighted according to their relevance.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that urinary bladder cancer in SCI patients differs considerably from that in able-bodied patients. The presented algorithm is an important aid in everyday clinical practice for assessing the correlation between SCI and bladder cancer.

Long-term survival after radical cystectomy and mesenteric lymph node dissection for squamous cell carcinoma arising from augmented bladder with lymph node metastasis: a case report

Surgical resection is commonly performed for augmented bladder cancer, yet an optimal treatment strategy for augmented bladder cancer with lymph node metastasis has not been established. Here, we report a case that achieved 7 years of survival after radical cystectomy and mesenteric lymph node dissection for squamous cell carcinoma arising from augmented bladder with lymph node metastasis. Extended surgery could be a useful treatment option for locally advanced augmented bladder cancer including mesenteric lymph node metastasis.

Urological malignancies in neurogenic patients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review recent literature related to urologic malignancies in patients with neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD). We performed a literature search of electronic databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and CIANHL), with a focus on articles published between January 2015 and December 2019.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent reports demonstrate a lower incidence of bladder cancer in the NLUTD population than previously found, although still significantly higher than the general population. Bladder cancer in patients with NLUTD is usually diagnosed at a younger age, and is associated with higher rates of squamous cell cancer, a higher stage at presentation, and increased mortality. Evidence for screening for bladder cancer in NLUTD is conflicting, with no formal protocols proven for general use. NLUTD has been shown to have a lower rate of prostate cancer, and may be associated with an earlier diagnosis of renal cancer.

SUMMARY

Genitourinary malignancies, although still rare, are an important source of morbidity and mortality in patients with NLUTD. Physicians should recognize that bladder cancer in NLUTD is often a lethal disease. Further research is needed to assist physicians with early recognition of these malignancies to improve patient outcomes.

Evaluation and Long-term Management of Neurogenic Bladder in Spinal Dysraphism

Spinal dysraphism, which includes conditions such as myelomeningocele and sacral agenesis, is one of the most common causes of congenital lower urinary tract dysfunction. Early evaluation of the neurogenic bladder serves to minimize renal damage, and the main goals of management include preserving renal function, achieving acceptable continence, and optimizing quality of life. The survival of patients with such conditions has improved to greater than 80% reaching adulthood, owing to advances in diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. The result is a real, and unfortunately often unmet, need for successful transitional care in this complex patient population. Clinicians must be able to identify the unique challenges encountered by patients with neurogenic bladder as they shift through different stages of their life.

Bladder cancer in patients with spina bifida: a serious risk

PURPOSE

After bladder augmentation (BA) using bowel segments, it is known that there is a risk for secondary malignancies. It remains unclear whether this also applies to spina bifida (SB) patients without BA. The aim of this study was to analyze the frequency of bladder cancer (BC) in SB at a single tertiary institution and assess the patients' oncologic outcome.

METHODS

Patients with SB and BC treated from January 2016 until March 2020 were included and corresponding data were collected retrospectively. Endpoints were progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

Among 132 adult patients with SB, four with a median age of 34.5 years (IQR 31.5-36.8, range 31-37) had a BC. None of the patients had undergone BA. Most common symptoms included recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) (75%) and hydronephrosis (75%). At the time of the diagnosis, tumors were locally advanced (≥ T3) and lymph-node positive in all cases. All patients underwent radical cystectomy with adjuvant chemotherapy in two out of four cases. Histology showed squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) or at least a squamous cell component in all patients. The median PFS was 5.9 months (IQR 5.1-124.5) and the median OS was 8.7 months (IQR 6.3-125.5).

CONCLUSIONS

SCC in SB can appear at a young age and is usually diagnosed in an advanced tumor stage with poor prognosis despite radical surgical resection. Patients with SB without BA with clinical symptoms, new onset of hematuria, and/or upper tract dilatation should receive a cystoscopy ± further imaging.

[Urinary bladder cancer as a late sequela of spinal cord injury : Decision-making aids for assessment of this causal association]

BACKGROUND

There is to date no convincing literature that has assessed the association between traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) and the later development of urinary bladder cancer. The aim of this work is to present medical experts as well as the national accident insurance and the social courts decision-making aids based on the latest medical scientific knowledge, for assessment of this causal association.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A study conducted between April 1998 and March 2017 in the BG Trauma Hospital Hamburg forms the basis for the decision-making aids. Urinary bladder cancer was diagnosed in 32 out of 6432 treated outpatient and inpatient SCI patients. Furthermore, relevant published literature was taken into consideration for the decision-making aids.

RESULTS

It was found that urinary bladder cancer in SCI patients occurs at a considerably younger age as compared to the general population, more frequently shows muscle invasive carcinoma with a higher grade at first diagnosis and a higher proportion of the more aggressive squamous cell carcinoma than that of the general population. Correspondingly, the survival time is extremely unfavorable. For medical experts a matrix was compiled where the various influencing factors, either for or against the recognition of an association between SCI and urinary bladder cancer, were weighted according to their relevance.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that urinary bladder cancer in SCI patients differs considerably from that of able-bodied patients. These differences drastically shorten the survival time. A study on patients with spina bifida, i.e., a congenital spinal cord disorder, corroborates these observations. They indicate histopathological differences that have so far been intangible.

Incidental bladder cancer at initial urological workup of spinal cord injury patients

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective descriptive study.

OBJECTIVES

To compare histopathological findings and the long-term course of SCI patients with bladder cancer found incidentally at the initial urological workup to those diagnosed with bladder cancer many years after the onset of SCI.

SETTING

Spinal cord injury center in Germany.

METHODS

Data and follow-up of consecutive in- and out-patients with SCI admitted at a tertiary spinal cord injury center between January 1, 1998 and December 31, 2018 were screened retrospectively. All patients with acquired SCI were evaluated for pathological findings in the urinary bladder present at the time of SCI on the initial urological workup. Data of 37 long-term SCI patients from the same center with diagnosed bladder cancer and data of the general German population served as reference groups. Descriptive statistics were applied.

RESULTS

In total, four patients with bladder cancer at initial urological workup were assessed. They all had non-muscle invasive bladder cancer. Two of the patients were cystectomized 34 and 106 months after first bladder cancer diagnosis, due to relapsing tumor and progressive renal failure, respectively. In both cases no tumor was found in the resected bladder. All four patients are currently alive with no tumor and a mean follow-up of 105 months.

CONCLUSIONS

In incidental bladder cancer observed at the initial urological workup after acquired SCI, the duration of SCI, at least in the first 5 years, does not noticeably contribute to a poor prognosis, i.e., progression to muscle invasive bladder cancer (≥T2) or a higher grading (G3).

Complications in adulthood for patients with paediatric genitourinary reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Caring for adults with prior paediatric genitourinary reconstruction remains a challenge for adult providers. Reconstructions typically have occurred decades before; surgical records are not always available and patients and families may be unable to convey procedures performed. Spina bifida (SB) patients are vulnerable to cognitive decline which may compound these challenges. Changes in patient body habitus and loss of function may contribute to problems with previous reconstructions.

METHODS

This is a non-systematic review of the literature and represents expert opinion where data are non-existent. This review focuses on the evaluation and management of complications arising from genitourinary reconstruction in congenital neurogenic bladder patients.

RESULTS

Common complications experienced by congenital neurogenic bladder patients include recurrent urinary tract infection, incontinence of catheterizable channel and urinary reservoir as well as malignancy as this population ages. Preservation of renal function and prevention of urinary tract infection while optimizing continence are essential guiding principles in the care of these patients. Many of the recommendations, however, are gleaned from available data in the adult spinal cord patient (a more commonly studied population) or the paediatric urologic literature due to limited studies in adult management of such patients.

CONCLUSION

Close follow-up and vigilance is warranted to monitor for infectious, mechanical and malignant complications while optimizing preservation of the upper urinary tracts and patient quality of life.

The basics of transition in congenital lifelong urology

PURPOSE

Transition in urology is defined by the process that allows an adolescent or a young adult with a congenital or acquired urogenital anomaly to assume increasing responsibility for their own health care and to become the primary decision maker in their care.

METHODS

A review of the literature regarding transitional care for lifelong urologic congenital anomalies was performed with the aim of reporting expert opinion when data are non-existent. This review focuses on special considerations for adolescents and young adults with spina bifida, bladder exstrophy, anorectal malformations and differences of sexual development.

RESULTS

Urologic goals during the transition from childhood to adulthood continue to include attention to the preservation of renal function and optimization of lower urinary tract function. Additional concerns include care to decrease long-term surgical complications (especially after augmentation cystoplasty), to monitor for malignancy, to prepare for sex activity and fertility, and to help the adult patient in decision making. Transition aims to maximize quality of life and independence by ensuring uninterrupted appropriate care through a multidisciplinary approach which varies by geographical location and healthcare setting. Barriers include patient and family factors as well as provider and system related factors. A dedicated team is an important element of successful transition.

Traumatic spinal cord injury confers bladder cancer risk to patients managed without permanent urinary catheterization: lessons from a comparison of clinical data with the national database

PURPOSE

Life expectancy for people with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is increasing due to advances in treatment methods and in neuro-urology. Thus, developing urinary bladder cancer (UBC) is gaining importance.

METHODS

Single-centre retrospective evaluation of consecutive in- and out-patient data with spinal cord injury between January 1st, 1998 and December 31st, 2018 was carried out and data were compared with UBC data of the German population from the German Centre for Cancer Registry Data at Robert Koch Institute.

RESULTS

A total of 37 (4 female, 33 male) out of 7004 patients with SCI were diagnosed with histologically proven UBC (median follow-up 85 months). Median age at UBC diagnosis was 54.0 years (general population: 74 years). The SCI patients had significantly (p < 0.0001, each) more frequent muscle-invasive tumors (81% ≥ T2) and unfavorable grading (76% G3), compared to the general population. Median survival was 13 months for transitional cell carcinoma (n = 31) and 4 months for squamous cell carcinoma (n = 5) (p = 0.0039), resp. The median survival of the 24 cystectomized patients was 15.0 months. Long-term suprapubic or indwelling catheterization was found in only eight patients for a total of only 5.09% (median 15.5 months) of the latency of all patients. No significant differences for T category and grading were observed between the bladder emptying methods intermittent catheterisation and catheter-free voiding.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that in patients with SCI bladder management even without permanent catheterization represents a considerable risk for the development of UBC.

Re-evaluation of histological findings after colocystoplasty and gastrocystoplasty

INTRODUCTION

The potential of malignant transformation and its risk factors after bladder augmentation performed in childhood are still unknown. The necessity of surveillance cystoscopies and biopsies has been questioned in the past decade.

OBJECTIVE

In a previous study, the authors did not detect any malignancy after colocystoplasty (CCP) or gastrocystoplasty (GCP) during the short-term follow-up, however, various alterations of the mucosa were found. A correlation between the nature of histological changes and the frequency of bacterial colonization after CCP were also found. The authors hypothesized that a longer-term follow-up of their patients would reveal an increase in pathological change or show stronger association between the histological alteration, bacterial colonization, and/or stone formation.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty-five patients (20 cases of colocystoplasties - CCPs; 15 cases of gastrocystoplasties - GCPs) participated in the study published in 2002. All patients were followed biannually with endoscopic assessment and biopsies. Two independent pathologists, evaluated regular biopsies from the native bladder, from the segment used for augmentation and from the anastomosis line. Etiology, frequency of positive urine cultures, and stone events were recorded and compared with histological findings between groups and with the previously published results.

RESULTS

Continuous surveillance allowed the follow-up of 30 patients (CCP 19/20, GCP 11/15) for 20 and 15 years. No malignancies were identified. Results of biopsies showed significant difference between groups (summarized in the tables). Chronic inflammatory changes were found following both types of augmentations, but they were more common in the urothelium following GCP and more common in the colonic mucosa following CCP. The rate of metaplastic lesions was higher after gastrocystoplasty (GCP). Significant association was found between the etiologic factor and the nature of histological change after CCP, as metaplastic lesions occurred only in patients with bladder exstrophy. Stones occurred more frequently in exstrophy patients as well. The nature of the histological changes did not correlate with positive urine cultures in either of the groups. Significantly higher incidence of bacterial colonization and stone occurrence were found after CCP.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term follow-up of the patients failed to reveal an increase in pathological changes, and no malignancies were observed. According to the results of this study, etiology of bladder dysfunction and the type of augmentation might influence the histological alterations after augmentation cystoplasty. The efficiency of surveillance cystoscopies and biopsies are low. The present data suggest that surveillance cystoscopy and biopsy should not be routinely performed, and should be done only if the symptoms are suspicious for malignancy.

Urothelial cell carcinoma of the bladder in pediatric patients: a systematic review and data analysis of the world literature

BACKGROUND

Urothelial cell carcinoma (UCC) of the bladder is exceedingly rare in pediatric patients. Limited data are available to guide management in this population.

METHODS

The authors systematically searched MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar (through February 2019) for case reports and series to summarize data regarding presentation, evaluation, management, and follow-up for patients ≤ 18 years diagnosed with UCC of the bladder. Patient-level data were abstracted, and adjusted logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with a combined outcome of recurrence or death.

RESULTS

One hundred two articles describing 243 patients from 26 countries met criteria. Average age was 12.5 years, 32.6% were female, 15.3% had medical comorbidities, and 13.2% had known risk factors for bladder cancer. Initial management was transurethral resection in 95.5% of patients, whereas 6.2% required secondary intervention. Tumor stage was TaN0M0 in 86.4% and low grade in 93.4%. Recurrence and death occurred in 8.6% and 3.7%, respectively. Mean time to recurrence or death was 8.6 months (standard deviation [SD] 7.6) for 10.7%. Mean disease free follow-up without recurrence or death was 56.9 months (SD 54.2) for 89.3%. Patients with comorbidities, risk factors, or family history (odds ratio [OR]: 2.4, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-5.6); ≥TaN0M0 disease (OR: 6.2, 95% CI: 2.5-15.6); and larger tumors at diagnosis (OR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.2-2.4) had significantly greater adjusted odds of recurrence or death after initial treatment.

CONCLUSION

Based on pooled results, disease recurrence or death occurred in 10.7% of pediatric patients and within 9 months for most and within 32 months for all patients. This may suggest that low-grade and stage UCC of the bladder in pediatric patients can be systematically monitored for at least 3 years. However, prospective evaluation of this clinical strategy is warranted.

Neuropathic Bladder and Augmentation Cystoplasty

Surgical indications for individuals with neuropathic bladder include unsafe urinary storage pressures, progressive upper tract deterioration, and continued urinary incontinence that is recalcitrant to oral pharmacologic or intradetrusor injection therapy and intermittent catheterization. Bladder augmentation is currently the gold standard surgical procedure used to increase bladder capacity and reduce storage pressures but has significant long-term risks. The medical and surgical management of neuropathic bladder, as well as long-term consequences of bladder augmentation, are reviewed.