1
|
Arlettaz ME, Dorsch LN, Catalfamo-Formento PAL. Landing error scoring system: A scoping review about variants, reference values and differences according to sex and sport. Phys Ther Sport 2024; 69:67-75. [PMID: 39088901 DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2024.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/03/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) is a movement analysis tool proposed to identify the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injuries, very useful for injury prevention. The aim of this study is to review the variants of the LESS, their normative scores and the differences according to sex and sport practiced. METHODS PubMed, Scopus and ScienceDirect databases were searched from inception to October 19, 2023. Studies were eligible if the objective was finding normative or reference scores for the LESS, analyze the differences between sexes or sports, or used some variant of the test. Results were limited to available full-text articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals. RESULTS Of the 360 articles identified, 20 were included for a full analysis (18,093 participants, age = 8-30 years, males = 70.6%). The military population was the most frequently analyzed (7 studies, n = 16,603). Results showed six variants of the LESS and average values ranged from 2.56 to 7.1. Males and females showed different pattern landing with errors in different planes. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the need for more field studies on LESS reference scores, particularly for females and basketball or hockey players. Further research is required before conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Collapse
|
2
|
Asgari M, Alizadeh MH, Naderi M, Abshenas E, Sahebozamani M, Yazdani S, Nolte K, Alizadeh S, Mohammadi M, Kooroshfard N, Arghadeh R, Jaitner T. Little associations exist between the three commonly used functional screening tests in collegiate athletes. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13611. [PMID: 38871829 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64518-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Although an abundant number of studies have investigated the predictability of the commonly used functional screening tests and despite their popularity and applicability, the relationships between these tests have rarely been studied and have not been well established. This study aimed to examine the potential association between the Functional Movement Screen (FMS), Y Balance Test (YBT), and Landing Error Scoring System (LESS). Six hundred twenty-seven Iranian collegiate athletes (347 males, age = 22.63 ± 4.07, weight = 75.98 ± 13.79, height = 181.99 ± 10.15, BMI = 22.84 ± 3.16; and 280 females, age = 22.22 ± 3.37, weight = 60.63 ± 9.58, height = 166.55 ± 6.49, BMI = 21.81 ± 2.84) participated in this study. Following a 5-min warm-up, each participant underwent a standardized screening battery including the FMS, YBT, and LESS, and the scores were recorded and live coded for the statistical analysis, except for the LESS. The LESS tests were video recorded and scored by one expert examiner using an open-source 2D video analysis software (Kinovea- version 0.9.5), afterwards. The Spearman correlation was utilized as a measure for the correlation, and the Mann‒Whitney U test with a significance level of 0.05 was used to check the differences between male and female athletes. The statistical analysis was performed with RStudio 2023.03.0 using R 4.3.1. A small correlation (0.364) was observed between the FMS composite score and the YBT in male athletes. All other pairwise correlations were negligible among male and female athletes, ranging from - 0.096 to 0.294. Reducing the FMS to the component scores targeting the lower extremities did not alter the correlation to the other screening scores. The median FMS composite score in female athletes was significantly higher than that in males (p < 0.001). Negligible correlations exist between the FMS, LESS, and YBT; they do not measure the same values and therefore are irreplaceable with one another. A combination of these tests as a standardized screening battery may potentially better identify injury-predisposed athletes than the application of each test as a stand-alone screening test. Females outperformed males in the FMS test significantly, so sex must be considered a key variable in the FMS studies. Males had slightly higher LESS scores (median difference = 0.5) than females, but this difference is not clinically meaningful. Future research should continue to explore the relationships between various functional screening tests and identify the most effective combinations for comprehensive assessment in different populations and sports disciplines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Asgari
- Training and Movement Science Department, Institue for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn Str.03, 44227, Dortmund, Germany.
| | - Mohammad Hossein Alizadeh
- Department of Health and Sport Medicine, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Naderi
- Department of Health and Sport Medicine, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ehsan Abshenas
- Department of Health and Sport Medicine, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mansour Sahebozamani
- Department of Pathology and Corrective Exercise, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran
| | - Shirin Yazdani
- Department of Motor Control, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Kevin Nolte
- Training and Movement Science Department, Institue for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn Str.03, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Shahab Alizadeh
- Human Performance Lab, Kinesiology Department, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Mohammadreza Mohammadi
- Department of Sport Injuries and Corrective Exercises, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Hakim Sabzevari University, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Negar Kooroshfard
- Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ramin Arghadeh
- Department of Health and Sport Medicine, Faculty of Sport Sciences and Health, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Thomas Jaitner
- Training and Movement Science Department, Institue for Sport and Sport Science, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn Str.03, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hébert-Losier K, Boswell-Smith C, Hanzlíková I. Effect of Footwear Versus Barefoot on Double-Leg Jump-Landing and Jump Height Measures: A Randomized Cross-Over Study. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2023; 18:845-855. [PMID: 37547838 PMCID: PMC10399122 DOI: 10.26603/001c.81107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Assessing individuals in their own athletic footwear in clinics is common, but can affect movement, performance, and clinical measures. Purpose The aim was to compare overall Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) scores, injury risk categorization, specific LESS errors, and jump heights between habitual athletic footwear and barefoot conditions. Study design Randomized cross-over laboratory study. Methods Eighty healthy individuals (55% male) completed the LESS following standard procedures (i.e., land from a 30-cm box to a distance of 50% of body height and then jump upwards maximally). Participants performed the LESS three times in two randomized conditions: footwear and barefoot. LESS data were extracted from 2D videos to compare group-level mean LESS scores, group-level and individual-level injury risk categorization (5-error threshold), specific landing errors, and jump heights between conditions. Results LESS scores were significantly greater (0.3 errors, p=0.022) and jump heights were significantly lower (0.6 cm, p=0.029) in footwear than barefoot, but differences were trivial (d = 0.18 and -0.07, respectively) and not clinically meaningful. Although the number of high injury-risk participants was not statistically different at a group level (p=1.000); 27 individuals (33.8%) exhibited a clinically meaningful difference between conditions of one error or more in LESS score, categorization was inconsistent for 16.3% of individuals, and four of the 17 landing errors significantly differed between conditions. Conclusion At a group level, habitual athletic footwear does not meaningfully influence LESS scores, risk categorization, or jump height. At an individual level, footwear can meaningfully affect LESS scores, risk categorization, and alter landing strategies. Use of consistent protocol and footwear is advised for assessing movement patterns and injury risk from the LESS given the unknown predictive value of this test barefoot. Level of Evidence Level 3.©The Author(s).
Collapse
|
4
|
Hébert-Losier K, Boswell-Smith C, Hanzlíková I. Effect of an overhead goal on landing error scoring system and jump height measures. Phys Ther Sport 2023; 59:115-121. [PMID: 36528004 DOI: 10.1016/j.ptsp.2022.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Compare overall Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) scores, risk categorisation, specific LESS errors, and double-leg jump-landing jump heights between overhead goal and no goal conditions. DESIGN Randomised cross-over. SETTING Laboratory. PARTICIPANTS 76 (51% male). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Participants landed from a 30-cm box to 50% of their body height and immediately jumped vertically for maximum height. Participants completed three trials under two random-ordered conditions: with and without overhead goal. Group-level mean LESS scores, risk categorisation (5-error threshold), specific landing errors, and jump heights were compared between conditions. RESULTS Mean LESS scores were greater (0.3 errors, p < 0.001) with the overhead goal, but this small difference was not clinically meaningful. Similarly, although the number of high-risk participants was greater with the overhead goal (p = 0.039), the 9.2% difference was trivial. Participants jumped 2.7 cm higher with the overhead goal (p < 0.001) without affecting the occurrence of any specific LESS errors. DISCUSSION Performing the LESS with an overhead goal enhances sport specificity and elicits greater vertical jump performances with minimal change in landing errors and injury-risk categorisation. Adding an overhead goal to LESS might enhance its suitability for injury risk screening, although the predictive value of LESS with an overhead goal needs confirmation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Adams Centre for High Performance, 52 Miro Street, 3116, Tauranga, New Zealand. https://twitter.com/KimHebertLosier
| | - Caleb Boswell-Smith
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Adams Centre for High Performance, 52 Miro Street, 3116, Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - Ivana Hanzlíková
- Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University Olomouc, Třída Míru 177, Olomouc, 771 11, Czech Republic. https://twitter.com/HanzlikovaIvana
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Akbari H, Shimokochi Y, Sheikhi B. Ankle dorsiflexion range of motion and landing postures during a soccer-specific task. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0283150. [PMID: 36928236 PMCID: PMC10019731 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0283150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ankle dorsiflexion range of motion (DF-ROM) has been shown to be associated with poor landing posture. However, previously used tasks have been controlled, and it is unclear whether clinical measurements of the ankle DF-ROM, are associated with landing positions during sport-specific task. This study sought to determine the relationship between ankle DF-ROM and landing positions. METHODS Thirty male soccer players participated in this study. The ankle DF-ROM was measured by the weight bearing lunge test in degrees using a cell phone app (TiltMeter). Landing patterns were assessed during a soccer-specific task using landing error scoring system items using Kinovea software. Simple correlations were used to evaluate the relationships between ankle DF-ROM and landing error scores. RESULTS Significant correlations were found between ankle DF-ROM and landing errors (r = -0.450, P = 0.006). A decreased ankle DF-ROM was associated with greater landing errors in a soccer specific situation. CONCLUSION These results suggest that ankle DF-ROM may serve a useful clinical measure for identifying poor landing posture in the real-world environment. Therefore, assessment of ankle DF-ROM could be included in the screening process, which could help identify the cause of the faulty motion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Akbari
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Zabol, Zabol, Iran
- * E-mail:
| | - Yohei Shimokochi
- Department of Health and Sport Management, School of Health and Sport Sciences, Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences, Osaka, Japan
| | - Bahram Sheikhi
- Department of Biomechanics and Sport Injuries, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Performance of male and female soccer players in field-based tests for screening the anterior cruciate ligament injury risk. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-022-01011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
7
|
Garcia S, Delattre N, Berton E, Divrechy G, Rao G. Comparison of landing kinematics and kinetics between experienced and novice volleyball players during block and spike jumps. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2022; 14:105. [PMID: 35690791 PMCID: PMC9188216 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-022-00496-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The practice of volleyball requires many jumps. During landing, anterior cruciate ligament injuries may occur with high-risk lower limb kinematics and kinetics. Differences in landing strategies between experienced and novice volleyball players have not been fully explored. The purpose of the study was to compare lower limb kinematics and kinetics in experienced and novice volleyball players when performing volleyball specific jumps. METHODS A total of 30 healthy males, 15 experienced and 15 novice volleyball players, participated in the study. Participants performed block and spike jumps at a controlled jump height. Hip, knee and ankle joints angles at initial ground contact and ranges of motion in the sagittal plane, knee joint angles and moments in the frontal plane, vertical ground reaction force peak and loading rate were analyzed to investigate the expertise effect. RESULTS Experienced volleyball players landed with larger ankle dorsiflexion range of motion compared to novices. For the spike jump, experienced players landed with larger ankle plantarflexion angles at initial contact and larger ankle dorsiflexion ranges of motion, and for the block jump, they landed with larger knee flexion ranges of motion. Experienced players jumped significantly higher than novices. No difference was found in vertical ground reaction force peaks and loading rates. CONCLUSIONS Although the experienced group jumped higher than the novice group, no difference was found in ground reaction force parameters. These findings highlight that the experience of volleyball players acquired during regular trainings and competitions may play an important role in landing kinematics and kinetics to reduce the injury risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Garcia
- Movement Sciences Department, Decathlon SportsLab, 59000, Lille, France. .,CNRS, Insitute of Movement Sciences, Aix-Marseille University, 13007, Marseille, France.
| | - N Delattre
- Movement Sciences Department, Decathlon SportsLab, 59000, Lille, France
| | - E Berton
- CNRS, Insitute of Movement Sciences, Aix-Marseille University, 13007, Marseille, France
| | - G Divrechy
- Movement Sciences Department, Decathlon SportsLab, 59000, Lille, France
| | - G Rao
- CNRS, Insitute of Movement Sciences, Aix-Marseille University, 13007, Marseille, France
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Acute Effects of Tissue Flossing Coupled with Functional Movements on Knee Range of Motion, Static Balance, in Single-Leg Hop Distance, and Landing Stabilization Performance in Female College Students. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19031427. [PMID: 35162447 PMCID: PMC8835546 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19031427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Flexibility, specifically that in the amplitude of sagittal-plane range of motion (ROM), can improve jump landing patterns and reduce the potential for sports injury. The use of floss bands (FLOSS) reportedly increases joint range of motion (ROM) in the shoulder, ankle, and elbow joints. However, little research on the effectiveness of FLOSS on the knee joint has been conducted. This study investigated the effects of FLOSS on knee ROM, static balance, single-leg-hop distance, and landing stabilization performance in women. This study had a crossover design. Twenty active female college students without musculoskeletal disorders were randomly assigned to receive a FLOSS intervention or elastic bandage (ELA) control on their dominant knees. The participants underwent FLOSS and ELA activities on two occasions with 48 h of rest between both sets of activities. The outcomes were flexibility of the quadriceps and hamstrings, how long one could maintain a single-leg stance (with and without eyes closed), distance on a single-leg triple hop, and score on the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS); these outcomes were evaluated at preintervention and postintervention (immediately following band removal and 20 min later). After the FLOSS intervention, the participants’ hamstring flexibility improved significantly (immediately after: p = 0.001; 20 min later: p = 0.002), but their quadricep flexibility did not. In addition, FLOSS use did not result in worse single-leg stance timing, single-leg triple-hop distance, or landing stabilization performance relative to ELA use. Compared with the ELA control, the FLOSS intervention yielded significantly better LESS at 20 min postintervention (p = 0.032), suggesting that tissue flossing can improve landing stability. In conclusion, the application of FLOSS to the knee improves hamstring flexibility without impeding static balance, and improves single-leg hop distance and landing stabilization performance in women for up to 20 min. Our findings elucidate the effects of tissue flossing on the knee joint and may serve as a reference for physiotherapists or athletic professionals in athletic practice settings.
Collapse
|
9
|
Lisman P, Wilder JN, Berenbach J, Jiao E, Hansberger B. The Relationship between Landing Error Scoring System Performance and Injury in Female Collegiate Athletes. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2021; 16:1415-1425. [PMID: 34909248 PMCID: PMC8637302 DOI: 10.26603/001c.29873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) is a standardized tool used to identify aberrant biomechanical movement patterns during a jump-landing task. Prior authors have examined the value of the LESS in identifying ACL injury risk in athletic populations. Yet, no study has evaluated the association between LESS performance and incidence of any type of lower extremity injury in female collegiate athletes across multiple sports. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to examine the association between LESS performance as measured with a markerless motion-capture system and lower extremity injury in female collegiate athletes. STUDY DESIGN Prospective cohort study. METHODS One hundred and ten DI female collegiate athletes (basketball, n=12; field hockey, n=17; gymnastics, n=14; lacrosse, n=27; softball, n=23; volleyball, n=17) completed a jump-landing test prior to the start of their sport seasons. The LESS was automatically scored using a Microsoft Kinect sensor and Athletic Movement Assessment software (PhysiMax®). Participants were tracked throughout one competitive season for incidence of time-loss lower extremity injury. A Receiver Operating Characteristic curve determined the optimal cutpoint for the total LESS score for predicting injury. Pearson's Chi squared statistics examined the association between injury and LESS total scores >5. The Fisher exact test evaluated group differences for the frequency of receiving an error on individual LESS test items. RESULTS Female collegiate athletes with LESS scores >5 were not more likely to be injured than those with scores ≤5 (χ2=2.53, p=0.111). The relative risk of injury to this group was 1.78 (95% CI=0.86, 3.68) while the odds ratio was 2.10 (95% CI=0.83, 5.27). The uninjured group was more likely to receive an error on lateral trunk flexion at initial contact than the injured group (p=0.023). CONCLUSION The LESS total score was not associated with an increased odds of lower extremity injury in this cohort of female collegiate athletes. Future studies to examine the association between individual LESS item scores and injury are warranted. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE 1b.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Enric Jiao
- Department of Kinesiology, Towson University
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Hoover DL, Killian CB, Tinius RA, Bellar DM, Wilkinson SG, Esslinger FT, Judge LW. Predictive Validity of a Functional Movement Screen in Professional Basketball Players. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 56:medicina56120724. [PMID: 33371366 PMCID: PMC7767371 DOI: 10.3390/medicina56120724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Background and objectives: Striking a balance between maximizing performance and preventing injury remains elusive in many professional sports. The purpose of this study was to assess the relative risk of non-contact injuries in professional basketball players based on predictive cut scores on the Functional Movement Screen™ (FMS). Materials and Methods: Thirty-two professional basketball players from the National Basketball Association (NBA) and Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) participated in this study. This observational pilot cohort study assessed and scored each participant using the FMS during training camp. Each athlete was then tracked throughout the season while recording the number, type, and time lost due to injuries. Possible exposures, actual exposures, and exposures missed due to non-contact injury (NCI) for each athlete were calculated and then used to determine the crude and specific incident rates for exposures missed due to NCI per 1000 exposures. Results: Linear regression models were used to evaluate the predictive ability of the FMS score for total missed exposures, NCI, and CI missed exposures. In all models, the FMS total score failed to attain significance as a predictor (p > 0.05). FMS scores ranged from 5 to 18. The recommended cut score of 14 showed a sensitivity of 0.474 and a specificity of 0.750. The cut score of 15 showed the best combination, exhibiting a sensitivity of 0.579 and specificity of 0.625. A total of 5784 exposures to NCI were possible for the men and women combined, and 681 possible exposures were missed. Of these, 23.5% were due to NCI, 16.5% were due to contact injuries (CI), and 60% were due to illnesses and personal reasons. Conclusions: The FMS proved to be a measure that was not associated with any injury measure in this sample of professional basketball players, suggesting the instrument lacks predictive validity in this population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Donald L. Hoover
- Doctor of Physical Therapy Department, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-269-387-7369
| | - Clyde B. Killian
- Krannert School of Physical Therapy, University of Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 42667, USA;
| | - Rachel A. Tinius
- School of Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport, Western Michigan University, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA; (R.A.T.); (F.T.E.)
| | - David M. Bellar
- Department of Kinesiology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA;
| | - Steven G. Wilkinson
- Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, Rocky Mountain University of Health Professions, Provo, UT 84606, USA;
| | - Francis T. Esslinger
- School of Kinesiology, Recreation, and Sport, Western Michigan University, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA; (R.A.T.); (F.T.E.)
| | - Lawrence W. Judge
- School of Kinesiology, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306, USA;
| |
Collapse
|