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Zúñiga-Hernández SR, García-Iglesias T, Macías-Carballo M, Pérez-Larios A, Gutiérrez-Mercado YK, Camargo-Hernández G, Rodríguez-Razón CM. Targets and Effects of Common Biocompounds of Hibiscus sabdariffa (Delphinidin-3-Sambubiosid, Quercetin, and Hibiscus Acid) in Different Pathways of Human Cells According to a Bioinformatic Assay. Nutrients 2024; 16:566. [PMID: 38398890 PMCID: PMC10893457 DOI: 10.3390/nu16040566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The utilization of food as a therapeutic measure for various ailments has been a prevalent practice throughout history and across different cultures. This is exemplified in societies where substances like Hibiscus sabdariffa have been employed to manage health conditions like hypertension and elevated blood glucose levels. The inherent bioactive compounds found in this plant, namely, delphinidin-3-sambubioside (DS3), quercetin (QRC), and hibiscus acid (HA), have been linked to various health benefits. Despite receiving individual attention, the specific molecular targets for these compounds remain unclear. In this study, computational analysis was conducted using bioinformatics tools such as Swiss Target Prediction, ShinnyGo 0.77, KEGG, and Stringdb to identify the molecular targets, pathways, and hub genes. Supplementary results were obtained through a thorough literature search in PubMed. DS3 analysis revealed potential genetic alterations related to the metabolism of nitrogen and glucose, inflammation, angiogenesis, and cell proliferation, particularly impacting the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. QRC analysis demonstrated interconnected targets spanning multiple pathways, with some overlap with DS3 analysis and a particular focus on pathways related to cancer. HA analysis revealed distinct targets, especially those associated with pathways related to the nervous system. These findings emphasize the necessity for focused research on the molecular effects of DS3, QRC, and HA, thereby providing valuable insights into potential therapeutic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio R. Zúñiga-Hernández
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico;
| | - Trinidad García-Iglesias
- Instituto de Investigación de Cáncer en la Infancia y Adolescencia, Departamento de Fisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Guadalajara 44340, Mexico;
| | - Monserrat Macías-Carballo
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Médicas, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico;
| | - Alejandro Pérez-Larios
- Laboratorio de Nanomateriales, Agua y Energia, Departamento de Ingenierias, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico;
| | - Yanet Karina Gutiérrez-Mercado
- Laboratorio Biotecnológico de Investigación y Diagnóstico, Departamento de Clínicas, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico;
| | - Gabriela Camargo-Hernández
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico;
| | - Christian Martin Rodríguez-Razón
- Laboratorio de Experimentación Animal (Bioterio), Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Centro Universitario de los Altos, Tepatitlán de Morelos 47620, Mexico
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Mao X, Li H, Zheng J. Effects of xenobiotics on CYP1 enzyme-mediated biotransformation and bioactivation of estradiol. Drug Metab Rev 2023; 55:1-49. [PMID: 36823774 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2023.2177671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous estradiol (E2) exerts diverse physiological and pharmacological activities, commonly used for hormone replacement therapy. However, prolonged and excessive exposure to E2 potentially increases estrogenic cancer risk. Reportedly, CYP1 enzyme-mediated biotransformation of E2 is largely concerned with its balance between detoxification and carcinogenic pathways. Among the three key CYP1 enzymes (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, and CYP1B1), CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 mainly catalyze the formation of nontoxic 2-hydroxyestradiol (2-OH-E2), while CYP1B1 specifically catalyzes the formation of genotoxic 4-hydroxyestradiol (4-OH-E2). 4-OH-E2 can be further metabolized to electrophilic quinone intermediates accompanied by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), triggering DNA damage. Since abnormal alterations in CYP1 activities can greatly affect the bioactivation process of E2, regulatory effects of xenobiotics on CYP1s are essential for E2-associated cancer development. To date, thousands of natural and synthetic compounds have been found to show potential inhibition and/or induction actions on the three CYP1 members. Generally, these chemicals share similar planar polycyclic skeletons, the structural motifs and substituent groups of which are important for their inhibitory/inductive efficiency and selectivity toward CYP1 enzymes. This review comprehensively summarizes these known inhibitors and/or inductors of E2-metabolizing CYP1s based on chemical categories and discusses their structure-activity relationships, which would contribute to better understanding of the correlation between xenobiotic-regulated CYP1 activities and estrogenic cancer susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Mao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, College of Pharmacy, Mudanjiang Medical University, Mudanjiang, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Jiang Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics of Guizhou Province, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China.,Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
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3
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Donovan MG, Selmin OI, Romagnolo DF. Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Diet and Breast Cancer Risk. THE YALE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2018; 91:105-127. [PMID: 29962921 PMCID: PMC6020732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer and leading cause of cancer mortality among women worldwide. However, the majority of breast malignancies are of sporadic etiology. Therefore, identifying risk-mitigating factors may significantly decrease the burden of breast cancer. Diet can have both a predisposing and protective role in breast tumorigenesis. However, establishing efficacy of dietary constituents for cancer prevention has been limited by suboptimal dietary assessment. There is a need to acquire new experimental evidence that can be used to discriminate beneficial from harmful dietary constituents. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that is recognized as the mediator of halogenated and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon toxicities. Importantly, evidence points to a breast tumor-promoting role for the AhR. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest that the AhR is overexpressed in advanced and triple negative breast cancers. Several dietary constituents, namely flavonoid compounds, have demonstrated inhibitory effects on AhR activation. Given this background, in this paper we elaborate on the working hypothesis that a diet rich in AhR food agonists favors breast tumor development, whereas a diet rich in AhR food antagonists is protective. As an initial approach to developing an AhR diet hypothesis, we conducted a review of published studies reporting on the association between intake of AhR inhibitory foods and risk of breast cancer. To assist the reader with interpretation of the concepts leading to the AhR diet hypothesis, we have preceded this review with an overview of AhR biology and its role in breast cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micah G. Donovan
- The University of Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Ornella I. Selmin
- The University of Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ,Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Donato F. Romagnolo
- The University of Arizona Cancer Center, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ,Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ,To whom all correspondence should be addressed: Donato F. Romagnolo, The University of Arizona Cancer Center, Room 3999A, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Tel: 520-626-9751; Fax: 520-621-9446.
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Maturu P, Wei-Liang Y, Androutsopoulos VP, Jiang W, Wang L, Tsatsakis AM, Couroucli XI. Quercetin attenuates the hyperoxic lung injury in neonatal mice: Implications for Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 114:23-33. [PMID: 29432836 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Quercetin (QU) is one of the most common flavonoids that are present in a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and beverages. This compound possesses potent anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties. Supplemental oxygen is routinely administered to premature infants with pulmonary insufficiency. However, hyperoxia is one of the major risk factors for the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), which is also termed chronic lung disease in premature infants. Currently, no preventive approaches have been reported against BPD. The treatment of BPD is notably limited to oxygen administration, ventilatory support, and steroids. Since QU has been shown to be effective in reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in various disease models, we hypothesized that the postnatal QU treatment of newborn mice will protect against hyperoxic lung injury by the upregulation of the phase I (CYP1A/B) and/or phase II, NADPH quinone reductase enzymes. Newborn C57BL/6J mice within 24 h of birth with the nursing dams were exposed to either 21% O2 (air) and/or 85% O2 (hyperoxia) for 7 days. The mice were treated, intraperitoneally (i.p.) once every other day with quercetin, at a concentration of 20 mg/kg, or saline alone from postnatal day (PND) 2-6. The mice were sacrificed on day 7, and lung and liver tissues were collected. The expression levels of CYP1A1, CYP1B1, NQO1 proteins and mRNA as well as the levels of MDA-protein adducts were analyzed in lung and liver tissues. The findings indicated that QU attenuated hyperoxia-mediated lung injury by reducing inflammation and improving alveolarization with decreased number of neutrophil and macrophage infiltration. The attenuation of this lung injury correlated with the upregulation of CYP1A1/CYP1B1/NQO1 mRNA, proteins and the down regulation of NF-kB levels and MDA-protein adducts in lung and liver tissues. The present study demonstrated the potential therapeutic value of quercetin in the prevention and/or treatment of BPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paramahamsa Maturu
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Yanhong Wei-Liang
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Vasilis P Androutsopoulos
- Laboratory of Toxicology, University of Crete, Medical School, Voutes, Heraklion 71409, Crete, Greece
| | - Weiwu Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lihua Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Aristides M Tsatsakis
- Laboratory of Toxicology, University of Crete, Medical School, Voutes, Heraklion 71409, Crete, Greece
| | - Xanthi I Couroucli
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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van Duursen MBM. Modulation of estrogen synthesis and metabolism by phytoestrogens in vitro and the implications for women's health. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2017; 6:772-794. [PMID: 30090542 DOI: 10.1039/c7tx00184c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytoestrogens are increasingly used as dietary supplements due to their suggested health promoting properties, but also by women for breast enhancement and relief of menopausal symptoms. Generally, phytoestrogens are considered to exert estrogenic activity via estrogen receptors (ERs), but they may also affect estrogen synthesis and metabolism locally in breast, endometrial and ovarian tissues. Considering that accurate regulation of local hormone levels is crucial for normal physiology, it is not surprising that interference with hormonal synthesis and metabolism is associated with a wide variety of women's health problems, varying from altered menstrual cycle to hormone-dependent cancers. Yet, studies on phytoestrogens have mainly focused on ER-mediated effects of soy-derived phytoestrogens, with less attention paid to steroid synthesis and metabolism or other phytoestrogens. This review aims to evaluate the potential of phytoestrogens to modulate local estrogen levels and the implications for women's health. For that, an overview is provided of the effects of commonly used phytoestrogens, i.e. 8-prenylnaringenin, biochanin A, daidzein, genistein, naringenin, resveratrol and quercetin, on estrogen synthesizing and metabolizing enzymes in vitro. The potential implications for women's health are assessed by comparing the in vitro effect concentrations with blood concentrations that can be found after intake of these phytoestrogens. Based on this evaluation, it can be concluded that high-dose supplements with phytoestrogens might affect breast and endometrial health or fertility in women via the modulation of steroid hormone levels. However, more data regarding the tissue levels of phytoestrogens and effect data from dedicated, tissue-specific assays are needed for a better understanding of potential risks. At least until more certainty regarding the safety has been established, especially young women would better avoid using supplements containing high doses of phytoestrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majorie B M van Duursen
- Research group Endocrine Toxicology , Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences , Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Yalelaan 104 , 3584 CM , Utrecht , the Netherlands . ; Tel: +31 (0)30 253 5398
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Wang S, Dunlap TL, Howell CE, Mbachu OC, Rue EA, Phansalkar R, Chen SN, Pauli GF, Dietz BM, Bolton JL. Hop (Humulus lupulus L.) Extract and 6-Prenylnaringenin Induce P450 1A1 Catalyzed Estrogen 2-Hydroxylation. Chem Res Toxicol 2016; 29:1142-50. [PMID: 27269377 PMCID: PMC4951797 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.6b00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
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Humulus lupulus L. (hops) is a popular botanical
dietary supplement used by women as a sleep aid and for postmenopausal
symptom relief. In addition to its efficacy for menopausal symptoms,
hops can also modulate the chemical estrogen carcinogenesis pathway
and potentially protect women from breast cancer. In the present study,
an enriched hop extract and the key bioactive compounds [6-prenylnarigenin
(6-PN), 8-prenylnarigenin (8-PN), isoxanthohumol (IX), and xanthohumol
(XH)] were tested for their effects on estrogen metabolism in breast
cells (MCF-10A and MCF-7). The methoxyestrones (2-/4-MeOE1) were analyzed as biomarkers for the nontoxic P450 1A1 catalyzed
2-hydroxylation and the genotoxic P450 1B1 catalyzed 4-hydroxylation
pathways, respectively. The results indicated that the hop extract
and 6-PN preferentially induced the 2-hydroxylation pathway in both
cell lines. 8-PN only showed slight up-regulation of metabolism in
MCF-7 cells, whereas IX and XH did not have significant effects in
either cell line. To further explore the influence of hops and its
bioactive marker compounds on P450 1A1/1B1, mRNA expression and ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylase (EROD) activity were measured. The results
correlated with the metabolism data and showed that hop extract and
6-PN preferentially enhanced P450 1A1 mRNA expression and increased
P450 1A1/1B1 activity. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation
by the isolated compounds was tested using xenobiotic response element
(XRE) luciferase construct transfected cells. 6-PN was found to be
an AhR agonist that significantly induced XRE activation and inhibited
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) induced
XRE activity. 6-PN mediated induction of EROD activity was also inhibited
by the AhR antagonist CH223191. These data show that the hop extract
and 6-PN preferentially enhance the nontoxic estrogen 2-hydroxylation
pathway through AhR mediated up-regulation of P450 1A1, which further
emphasizes the importance of standardization of botanical extracts
to multiple chemical markers for both safety and desired bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Wang
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Tareisha L Dunlap
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Caitlin E Howell
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Obinna C Mbachu
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Emily A Rue
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Rasika Phansalkar
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Shao-Nong Chen
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Guido F Pauli
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Birgit M Dietz
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
| | - Judy L Bolton
- UIC/NIH Center for Botanical Dietary Supplements Research, Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy, University of Illinois at Chicago , 833 South Wood Street, Chicago, Illinois 60612-7231, United States
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Evaluation of treatment for dry eye with 2-hydroxyestradiol using a dry eye rat model. Mol Vis 2016; 22:446-53. [PMID: 27186071 PMCID: PMC4859160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE 2-hydroxy estradiol (2-OHE2) is a catechol derivative of 17β -Estradiol (E2) and it is synthesized from E2 catalyzed by cytochrome P4501A1. Previous studies reported that 2-OHE2 is a physiologic antioxidant in lipoproteins, liver microsomes, and the brain. Catechol derivatives show an anti-inflammatory effect through the inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase (PGS) activity. Corneal erosion caused by dry eye is related to an increase in oxidative stress and inflammation in ocular surface cells. We investigated the therapeutic effects of 2-OHE2 on corneal damage caused by dry eye. METHODS Steroidal radical scavenging activity was confirmed through the electron spin resonance (ESR) method. PGS activity was measured using the COX Fluorescent Activity Assay Kit. To evaluate the effect of 2-OHE2 on the treatment for dry eye, 2-OHE2 was applied as an eye drop experiment using dry eye model rats. RESULTS 2-OHE2 scavenged tyrosyl radical and possibly suppressed oxidative stress in corneal epithelial cells. In addition, 2-OHE2 inhibited PGS activity, and 2-OHE2 is probably a competitive inhibitor of PGS. Corneal PGS activity was upregulated in the dry eye group. Therefore, 2-OHE2 eye drops improved corneal erosion in dry eye model rats. CONCLUSIONS 2-OHE2 is a candidate for the treatment of dry eye through the suppression of inflammation and oxidative stress in the cornea.
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Karpeta A, Maniecka A, Gregoraszczuk EŁ. Different mechanisms of action of 2, 2’, 4, 4’-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47) and its metabolites (5-OH-BDE-47 and 6-OH-BDE-47) on cell proliferation in OVCAR-3 ovarian cancer cells and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. J Appl Toxicol 2016; 36:1558-1567. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Karpeta
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction; Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow; Krakow Poland
- Department of Animal Physiology and Endocrinology; University of Agriculture in Krakow; Poland
| | - Anna Maniecka
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction; Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow; Krakow Poland
| | - Ewa Łucja Gregoraszczuk
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology of Reproduction; Institute of Zoology, Jagiellonian University in Krakow; Krakow Poland
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Ronghe A, Chatterjee A, Singh B, Dandawate P, Murphy L, Bhat NK, Padhye S, Bhat HK. Differential regulation of estrogen receptors α and β by 4-(E)-{(4-hydroxyphenylimino)-methylbenzene,1,2-diol}, a novel resveratrol analog. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2014; 144 Pt B:500-12. [PMID: 25242450 PMCID: PMC4195806 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women in the United States. Estrogens have been implicated as major risk factors in the development of breast neoplasms. Recent epidemiologic studies have suggested a protective role of phytoestrogens in prevention of breast and other cancers. Resveratrol, a naturally occurring phytoestrogen found notably in red grapes, berries and peanuts, has been shown to possess potent anti-cancer properties. However, the poor efficacy of resveratrol has prevented its use in a clinical setting. In order to improve the efficacy of resveratrol, we have synthesized a small combinatorial library of azaresveratrol analogs and tested them for their ability to inhibit the growth of breast cancer cell lines. We have recently shown that one of the synthesized analogs, 4-(E)-{(4-hydroxyphenylimino)-methylbenzene,1,2-diol} (HPIMBD), has better anti-cancer properties than resveratrol. The objective of this study was to investigate the differential regulation of estrogen receptors (ERs) α and β as a potential mechanism of inhibition of breast cancer by HPIMBD. Estrogen receptors α and β have been shown to have opposing roles in cellular proliferation. Estrogen receptor α mediates the proliferative responses of estrogens while ERβ plays an anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic role. We demonstrate that HPIMBD significantly induces the expression of ERβ and inhibits the expression of ERα. HPIMBD also inhibits the protein expression levels of oncogene c-Myc and cell cycle protein cyclin D1, genes downstream to ERα and important regulators of cell cycle, and cellular proliferation. HPIMBD significantly induces protein expression levels of tumor suppressors p53 and p21 in MCF-7 cells. Additionally, HPIMBD inhibits c-Myc in an ERβ-dependent fashion in MCF-10A and ERβ1-transfected MDA-MB-231 cells, suggesting regulation of ERs as an important upstream mechanism of this novel compound. Molecular docking studies confirm higher affinity for binding of HPIMBD in the ERβ cavity. Thus, HPIMBD, a novel azaresveratrol analog may inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells by differentially modulating the expressions of ERs α and β.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amruta Ronghe
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | - Anwesha Chatterjee
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | - Bhupendra Singh
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, University of AL at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Prasad Dandawate
- ISTRA, Department of Chemistry, Abeda Inamdar Senior College, University of Pune, India
| | - Leigh Murphy
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, Manitoba Institute of Cell Biology, University of Manitoba, Manitoba R3E0V9, Canada
| | - Nimee K Bhat
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
| | - Subhash Padhye
- ISTRA, Department of Chemistry, Abeda Inamdar Senior College, University of Pune, India
| | - Hari K Bhat
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA.
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Xie J, Huang X, Park MS, Pham HM, Chan WK. Differential suppression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator-dependent function by an aryl hydrocarbon receptor PAS-A-derived inhibitory molecule. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 88:253-65. [PMID: 24486526 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) heterodimerizes with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (Arnt) for transcriptional regulation. We generated three N-terminal deletion constructs of the human AhR of 12-24 kDa in size--namely D1, D2, and D3--to suppress the Arnt function. We observed that all three deletions interact with the human Arnt with similar affinities. D2, which contains part of the AhR PAS-A domain and interacts with the PAS-A domain of Arnt, inhibits the formation of the AhR gel shift complex. D2 suppresses the 3-methylcholanthrene-induced, dioxin response element (DRE)-driven luciferase activity in Hep3B cells and exogenous Arnt reverses this D2 suppression. D2 suppresses the induction of CYP1A1 at both the message and protein levels in Hep3B cells; however, the CYP1B1 induction is not affected. D2 suppresses the recruitment of Arnt to the cyp1a1 promoter but not to the cyp1b1 promoter, partly because the AhR/Arnt heterodimer binds better to the cyp1b1 DRE than to the cyp1a1 DRE. Interestingly, D2 has no effect on the cobalt chloride-induced, hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1)-dependent expression of vegf, aldolase c, and ldh-a messages. Our data reveal that the flanking sequences of the DRE contribute to the binding affinity of the AhR/Arnt heterodimer to its endogenous enhancers and the function of AhR and HIF-1 can be differentially suppressed by the D2 inhibitory molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghang Xie
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Medicinal Chemistry, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Xin Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, Qianfoshan Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250014, China
| | - Miki S Park
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Medicinal Chemistry, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Hang M Pham
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Medicinal Chemistry, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - William K Chan
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Medicinal Chemistry, Thomas J. Long School of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA.
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Wen CJ, Wu LX, Fu LJ, Shen DY, Zhang X, Zhang YW, Yu J, Zhou HH. Preferential Induction of CYP1A1 over CYP1B1 in Human Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cells after Exposure to Berberine. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2014; 15:495-9. [DOI: 10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.1.495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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Siddiqui RA, Harvey KA, Walker C, Altenburg J, Xu Z, Terry C, Camarillo I, Jones-Hall Y, Mariash C. Characterization of synergistic anti-cancer effects of docosahexaenoic acid and curcumin on DMBA-induced mammary tumorigenesis in mice. BMC Cancer 2013; 13:418. [PMID: 24034496 PMCID: PMC3848456 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-13-418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The major obstacles to the successful use of individual nutritional compounds as preventive or therapeutic agents are their efficacy and bioavailability. One approach to overcoming this problem is to use combinations of nutrients to induce synergistic effects. The objective of this research was to investigate the synergistic effects of two dietary components: docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), an omega-3 fatty acid present in cold-water fish, and curcumin (CCM), an herbal nutrient present in turmeric, in an in vivo model of DMBA-induced mammary tumorigenesis in mice. METHODS We used the carcinogen DMBA to induce breast tumors in SENCAR mice on control, CCM, DHA, or DHA + CCM diets. Appearance and tumor progression were monitored daily. The tumors were harvested 15 days following their first appearance for morphological and immunohistological analysis. Western analysis was performed to determine expression of maspin and survivin in the tumor tissues. Characterization of tumor growth was analyzed using appropriate statistical methods. Otherwise all other results are reported as mean ± SD and analyzed with one-way ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc procedure. RESULTS Analysis of gene microarray data indicates that combined treatment with DHA + CCM altered the profile of "PAM50" genes in the SK-BR-3 cell line from an ER⁻/Her-2⁺ to that resembling a "normal-like" phenotype. The in vivo studies demonstrated that DHA + CCM treatment reduced the incidence of breast tumors, delayed tumor initiation, and reduced progression of tumor growth. Dietary treatment had no effect on breast size development, but tumors from mice on a control diet (untreated) were less differentiated than tumors from mice fed CCM or DHA + CCM diets. The synergistic effects also led to increased expression of the pro-apoptotic protein, maspin, but reduced expression of the anti-apoptotic protein, survivin. CONCLUSIONS The SK-BR-3 cells and DMBA-induced tumors, both with an ER⁻ and Her-2⁺ phenotype, were affected by the synergistic interaction of DHA and CCM. This suggests that the specific breast cancer phenotype is an important factor for predicting efficacy of these nutraceuticals. The combination of DHA and CCM is potentially a dietary supplemental treatment for some breast cancers, likely dependent upon the molecular phenotype of the cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafat A Siddiqui
- Cellular Biochemistry Laboratory, Indiana University Health, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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Baer-Dubowska W, Szaefer H. Modulation of carcinogen-metabolizing cytochromes P450 by phytochemicals in humans. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2013; 9:927-41. [PMID: 23634851 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.795219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cytochrome P450 (CYP) families 1 - 3, besides oxidizing environmental and dietary chemicals, leading to their elimination, catalyze the bioactivation of exogenous as well as endogenous carcinogens. Phytochemicals, particularly those which are active food components, were shown to be able to affect specific CYP expression and/or activity in animal models and in human in vitro systems. Human intervention studies involving healthy volunteers were also performed. This review describes human CYP modulation by naturally occurring phytochemicals which can not only affect carcinogen metabolism in humans, but also change the drug response. AREAS COVERED The authors present an overview of carcinogens metabolizing human CYP modulation in different model systems as well as studies on human dietary intervention. Furthermore, the authors provide examples of the phytochemicals that affect CYP expression and activity. EXPERT OPINION CYP, which are involved in carcinogen activation, can metabolize a range of substrates and inducing CYP by one substrate may also increase the metabolism of another. The ultimate proof of the efficacy of CYP modulation strategy for chemoprevention may be provided by clinical trials involving risk populations, which are difficult to perform. The new human-like models are highly desired for the study of modulation of carcinogen-metabolizing CYP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanda Baer-Dubowska
- Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, Poznań, Poland.
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15
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Singh B, Bhat HK. Superoxide dismutase 3 is induced by antioxidants, inhibits oxidative DNA damage and is associated with inhibition of estrogen-induced breast cancer. Carcinogenesis 2012; 33:2601-10. [PMID: 23027624 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgs300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological data and studies in rodent models strongly support the role of estrogens in the development of breast cancers. Oxidative stress has been implicated in this carcinogenic process. We have recently demonstrated that antioxidants vitamin C or butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) severely inhibit 17β-estradiol (E2)-induced breast tumor development in female ACI rats. The objective of this study was to characterize the mechanism of antioxidant-mediated prevention of breast cancer. Female August Copenhagen Irish (ACI) rats were treated with E2, vitamin C, vitamin C + E2, BHA and BHA + E2 for up to 8 months. Superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD3) was suppressed in E2-exposed mammary tissues and in mammary tumors of rats treated with E2. This suppression was overcome by co-treatment of rats with E2 and vitamin C or BHA. 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels determined as a marker of oxidative DNA damage were higher in E2-exposed mammary tissues and in mammary tumors compared with age-matched controls. Vitamin C or BHA treatment significantly decreased E2-mediated increase in 8-OHdG levels in the mammary tissues and in MCF-10A cells. Increased DNA damage, colony and mammosphere formation, and migration in SOD3 knocked down MCF-10A cells, and nuclear translocation of SOD3 in vitamin C-treated mammary tissues and in MCF-10A cells suggest protective role of SOD3 against DNA damage and mammary carcinogenesis. Our studies further demonstrate that SOD3, but not SOD2 and SOD1, is induced by antioxidants and is regulated through NRF2. SOD3 may thus be an important gene in defense against oxidative stress and in the prevention of estrogen-mediated breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupendra Singh
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2464 Charlotte Street, Room 5251, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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Singh B, Bhat NK, Bhat HK. Induction of NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 by antioxidants in female ACI rats is associated with decrease in oxidative DNA damage and inhibition of estrogen-induced breast cancer. Carcinogenesis 2011; 33:156-63. [PMID: 22072621 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgr237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Exact mechanisms underlying the initiation and progression of estrogen-related cancers are not clear. Literature, evidence and our studies strongly support the role of estrogen metabolism-mediated oxidative stress in estrogen-induced breast carcinogenesis. We have recently demonstrated that antioxidants vitamin C and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) or estrogen metabolism inhibitor α-naphthoflavone (ANF) inhibit 17β-estradiol (E2)-induced mammary tumorigenesis in female ACI rats. The objective of the current study was to identify the mechanism of antioxidant-mediated protection against E2-induced DNA damage and mammary tumorigenesis. Female ACI rats were treated with E2 in the presence or absence of vitamin C or BHA or ANF for up to 240 days. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and NAD(P)H-quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) were suppressed in E2-exposed mammary tissue and in mammary tumors after treatment of rats with E2 for 240 days. This suppression was overcome by co-treatment of rats with E2 and vitamin C or BHA. Time course studies indicate that NQO1 levels tend to increase after 4 months of E2 treatment but decrease on chronic exposure to E2 for 8 months. Vitamin C and BHA significantly increased NQO1 levels after 120 days. 8-Hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels were higher in E2-exposed mammary tissue and in mammary tumors compared with age-matched controls. Vitamin C or BHA treatment significantly decreased E2-mediated increase in 8-OHdG levels in the mammary tissue. In vitro studies using silencer RNA confirmed the role of NQO1 in prevention of oxidative DNA damage. Our studies further demonstrate that NQO1 upregulation by antioxidants is mediated through NRF2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupendra Singh
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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Franke AA, Custer LJ, Morimoto Y, Nordt FJ, Maskarinec G. Analysis of urinary estrogens, their oxidized metabolites, and other endogenous steroids by benchtop orbitrap LCMS versus traditional quadrupole GCMS. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 401:1319-30. [PMID: 21713421 PMCID: PMC3249142 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5164-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 05/27/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Estrogens and other endogenous steroids are known risk markers for cancer. Gas chromatography (GC) with mass spectrometry (MS) has traditionally predominated the analysis of estrogens and other endogenous steroids, but liquid chromatography (LC) MS is increasingly favored. Direct comparisons of the two technologies have hitherto not been performed. Steroids were analyzed from 232 urine samples of 78 premenopausal women in a blinded fashion by benchtop orbitrap LCMS and single quadrupole GCMS. Sixteen steroidal estrogens including oxidized metabolites could be analyzed by LCMS. LCMS-GCMS Spearman rank correlations of the major estrogens E(1), E(2), E(3), 16α-OHE(1), and 2-OHE(1) were very high (r = 0.72-0.91), and absolute concentrations also agreed (<5% difference for E(1), E(2), E(3), 16α-OHE(1)). LCMS allowed reinterrogation of the acquired data due to orbitrap technology, which permitted post-analysis quantitation of progesterone, cortisol, and cortisone (LCMS-GCMS Spearman rank correlations = 0.80-0.84; absolute difference, <7%; n = 137). GCMS allows the measurement of a wide range of steroids including non-polar analytes that escape the presented LCMS assay. In contrast, orbitrap-based LCMS can detect more estrogens, is faster, less costly, allows post-data acquisition reinterrogation of certain analytes that had not been targeted a priori, and requires much less urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian A Franke
- University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Clinical Sciences Program, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA.
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Oleaga C, García M, Solé A, Ciudad CJ, Izquierdo-Pulido M, Noé V. CYP1A1 is overexpressed upon incubation of breast cancer cells with a polyphenolic cocoa extract. Eur J Nutr 2011; 51:465-76. [DOI: 10.1007/s00394-011-0231-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Dixit P, Khan MP, Swarnkar G, Chattopadhyay N, Maurya R. Osteogenic constituents from Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. flowers. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:4617-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.05.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ribonnet L, Callebaut A, Nobels I, Scippo ML, Schneider YJ, De Saeger S, Pussemier L, Larondelle Y. Modulation of CYP1A1 activity by a Ginkgo biloba extract in the human intestinal Caco-2 cells. Toxicol Lett 2011; 202:193-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Revised: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Dietary quercetin exacerbates the development of estrogen-induced breast tumors in female ACI rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2010; 247:83-90. [PMID: 20600213 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2010.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Phytoestrogens are plant compounds that structurally mimic the endogenous estrogen 17beta-estradiol (E(2)). Despite intense investigation, the net effect of phytoestrogen exposure on the breast remains unclear. The objective of the current study was to examine the effects of quercetin on E(2)-induced breast cancer in vivo. Female ACI rats were given quercetin (2.5 g/kg food) for 8 months. Animals were monitored weekly for palpable tumors, and at the end of the experiment, rats were euthanized, breast tumor and different tissues excised so that they could be examined for histopathologic changes, estrogen metabolic activity and oxidant stress. Quercetin alone did not induce mammary tumors in female ACI rats. However, in rats implanted with E(2) pellets, co-exposure to quercetin did not protect rats from E(2)-induced breast tumor development with 100% of the animals developing breast tumors within 8 months of treatment. No changes in serum quercetin levels were observed in quercetin and quercetin+E(2)-treated groups at the end of the experiment. Tumor latency was significantly decreased among rats from the quercetin+E(2) group relative to those in the E(2) group. Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) activity was significantly downregulated in quercetin-exposed mammary tissue. Analysis of 8-isoprostane F(2alpha) (8-iso-PGF(2alpha)) levels as a marker of oxidant stress showed that quercetin did not decrease E(2)-induced oxidant stress. These results indicate that quercetin (2.5 g/kg food) does not confer protection against breast cancer, does not inhibit E(2)-induced oxidant stress and may exacerbate breast carcinogenesis in E(2)-treated ACI rats. Inhibition of COMT activity by quercetin may expose breast cells chronically to E(2) and catechol estrogens. This would permit longer exposure times to the carcinogenic metabolites of E(2) and chronic exposure to oxidant stress as a result of metabolic redox cycling to estrogen metabolites, and thus quercetin may exacerbate E(2)-induced breast tumors in female ACI rats.
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Rajaraman G, Yang G, Chen J, Chang TK. Modulation of CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 gene expression and activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor by Ginkgo biloba extract in MCF-10A human mammary epithelial cells. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2009; 87:674-83. [DOI: 10.1139/y09-061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling pathway regulates the production of CYP1B1 and CYP1A1, which catalyze the bioactivation of various procarcinogens. In the present study, we investigated the effect of Ginkgo biloba extract and some of its chemical constituents on CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 gene expression and AhR activity in cultured MCF-10A human mammary epithelial cells. Treatment of MCF-10A cells with noncytotoxic concentrations of G. biloba extract (25–300 µg/mL for 24 or 48 h) increased CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 mRNA expression, which was accompanied by an increase in CYP1-mediated ethoxyresorufin O-dealkylation activity. The inductive effects of G. biloba extract were attenuated by an AhR antagonist (3′,4′-dimethoxyflavone). G. biloba extract (25–300 µg/mL) increased AhR-dependent reporter activity, as determined in MCF-10A cells transfected with an AhR-regulated luciferase reporter plasmid (pGudluc6.1). Bilobalide and ginkgolides A, B, C, and J were not responsible for the modulation of CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 gene expression or AhR activation by G. biloba extract. In contrast, quercetin increased CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 gene expression and activated AhR, whereas kaempferol and isorhamnetin suppressed constitutive CYP1B1 expression and antagonized AhR activation by benzo[a]pyrene. Overall, our findings provide an impetus for future investigations on the effect of G. biloba extract in CYP1-mediated chemical carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesh Rajaraman
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Guixiang Yang
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jie Chen
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Thomas K.H. Chang
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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