A phase inversion based nanoemulsion fabrication process to encapsulate vitamin D3 for food applications

Encapsulation of vitamin D3 using rhamnolipids-based nanostructured lipid carriers

This work had as main objective to encapsulate vitamin D3 (VD3) into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) using rhamnolipids as surfactant. Glycerol monostearate and medium chain triglycerides with 2.625 % of VD3 were used as lipid materials. The three formulations of NLCs with VD3 (NLCs + VD3) were composed by 99 % of aqueous phase, 1 % of lipid phase and 0.05 % of surfactant. The difference between them was the ratio of solid:liquid in lipid phase. The NLCs + VD3 sizes ranged between 92.1 and 108.1 nm. The most stable formulation maintaining their caracteristics for 60 days at 4 °C. The NLCs + VD3 cytotoxicity demonstrated that concentrations of 0.25 mg/mL or lower up had a good biocompatibility in vitro. During the in vitro digestion, formulations with lower sizes and higher content on solid lipid had higher lipolysis rate and consequently higher VD3 bioaccessibility. The rhamnolipids-based NLCs are a good option for the encapsulation of VD3.

Development, stabilization, and characterization of nanoemulsion of vitamin D3-enriched canola oil

In this study, the oil-in-water nanoemulsion (NE) was prepared and loaded with vitamin D3 in food-grade (edible) canola oil and stabilized by Tween 80 and Span 80 by using a water titration technique with droplet sizes of 20 to 200 nm. A phase diagram was established for the influence of water, oil, and S-Mix concentration. The outcomes revealed that the particle size of blank canola oil nanoemulsion (NE) ranged from 60.12 to 62.27 (d.nm) and vitamin D3 NE ranged from 93.92 to 185.5 (d.nm). Droplet size and polydispersity index (PDI) of both blank and vitamin D3-loaded NE results were less than 1, and zeta potential results for blank and vitamin D3 loaded NE ranged from -9.71 to -15.32 mV and -7.29 to -13.56 mV, respectively. Furthermore, the pH and electrical conductivity of blank NE were 6.0 to 6.2 and 20 to 100 (μs/cm), respectively, whereas vitamin D3-loaded NE results were 6.0 to 6.2 and 30 to 100 (μs/cm), respectively. The viscosity results of blank NE ranged from 0.544 to 0.789 (mPa.s), while that of vitamin D3-loaded NE ranged from 0.613 to 0.793 (mPa.s). In this study, the long-term stability (3 months) of canola oil NE containing vitamin D3 at room temperature (25 C) and high temperature (40 C) was observed.

Development of gelatin-coated nanoliposomes loaded with β-cyclodextrin/vitamin D3 inclusion complex for nutritional therapy

The aim of this study was to synthesize of β-cyclodextrin/Vitamin D₃ (βCD/VitD₃) inclusion complex and encapsulation of this complex with gelatin-coated nanoliposomes (NLPs). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the formation of βCD/VitD₃ inclusion complex. In the next step, different gelatin concentrations (1, 2, and 4 mg/mL) were used to surface coat the blank NLPs. The concentration of 2 mg/mL of gelatin was chosen as the optimal concentration for coating the complex-loaded NLPs by considering particle size, morphology, and zeta potential. The particle size and zeta potential of the coated complex-loaded NLPs were 117 ± 2.55 nm and 19.8 ± 1.25 mV, respectively. The images taken by transmission electron microscopy confirmed the formation of a biopolymer layer of gelatin around the NLPs' vesicles. The complex encapsulation efficiency inside the NLPs was 81.09%. The βCD/VitD₃ complex loaded NLPs and its coated form exhibited a controlled release profile in simulated gastrointestinal condition.

Size-optimized simvastatin-loaded TPGS modified lipid nanocapsules for targeting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in hepatocellular carcinoma: Role of PTEN/AKT signaling

OBJECTIVES

Novel D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) modified lipid nanocapsules (LNC) were prepared with the aim of improving the effectiveness of simvastatin (SIM) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The present study, therefore, sought to investigate the effect of size-optimized SIM-loaded LNC on epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in HCC, providing insights on the implication of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)/protein kinase B (AKT) axis.

METHODS

Two optimized SIM-loaded LNCs with particle sizes 25 nm (SIM-LNC25) and 50 nm (SIM-LNC50) were prepared and biodistribution studies were performed. The anticancer effect of the prepared LNC was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. The anti-migratory potential and EMT suppression through PTEN/AKT axis modulation were also explored.

RESULTS

SIM-LNC50 was superior to SIM-LNC25 in both in vitro and in vivo experiments, as evidenced by cytotoxicity assays, tumor histopathology, and enhanced apoptosis. SIM-LNC50 also alleviated the migratory potential of HCC cells. Moreover, EMT markers implied a transition of tumor cells toward the epithelial rather than the mesenchymal phenotype both in vitro and in vivo. PTEN/AKT axis modulation was also evident with SIM-LNC50.

CONCLUSION

The present study, therefore, suggests the efficacy of the 50 nm particles in SIM-loaded LNC in HCC by targeting EMT via modulating the PTEN/AKT signaling axis.

Recent advances in encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins using polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids: A review on delivery systems, formulation, and industrial applications

Fat-soluble vitamins (FSVs) offer a range of beneficial properties as important nutrients in human nutrition. However, the high susceptibility to environmental conditions such as high temperature, light, and oxygen leads to the degradation of these compounds. This review highlights the different formulations underlying the encapsulation of FSVs in biopolymer (polysaccharide and protein) and lipid-based micro or nanocarriers for potential applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. In particular, the function of these carrier systems in terms of encapsulation efficiency, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility is critically discussed. Recently, tremendous attention has been paid to encapsulating FSVs in commercial applications. According to the chemical nature of the active compound, the vigilant selection of delivery formulation, method of encapsulation, and final application (type of food) are the key important factors to be considered in the encapsulation of FSVs to ensure a high loading capacity, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility. Future studies are recommended on the effect of different vitamin types and micro and nano encapsulate sizes on bioaccessibility and biocompatibility through in vitro/in vivo studies. Moreover, the toxicity and safety evaluation of encapsulated FSVs in human health should be evaluated before commercial application in food and pharmaceuticals.

Advances and trends in encapsulation of essential oils

There is a huge concern regarding the potential carcinogenic and mutagenic risks associated with the usage of synthetic chemicals as preservatives in various consumer products such as food and pharmaceutical formulations. In this aspect, there is a need for the development of alternative natural preservatives to replace these synthetic chemicals. More recently, naturally occurring essential oils have emerged as popular ingredients owing to their unique characteristics like antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, to enrich and enhance the functional properties of consumer products. However, due to their high volatility and hydrophobicity, their functionality is lost and their incorporation in aqueous products is challenging. One of the promising strategies to overcome this challenge is encapsulation which involves the entrapment of the essential oil inside a biocompatible material for its controlled release and increased bioavailability. Also, the choice of encapsulation method depends on the component to be encapsulated and the shell material. In this review, encapsulation in various colloidal systems that facilitate the potential delivery of essential oils is discussed. The focus is on encapsulation techniques along with their advantages and disadvantages, encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro release studies.

Vitamin D3-Loaded Nanoemulsions as a Potential Drug Delivery System for Autistic Children: Formulation Development, Safety, and Pharmacokinetic Studies

The aim of the current study is the development of a vitamin D₃ (VD3)-loaded nanoemulsion (NE) formulation to improve VD3 oral bioavailability for management of vitamin D inadequacy in autistic children. Eight NE formulations were prepared by high-speed homogenization followed by ultrasonication. Four vegetable oils were employed along with two concentrations of Span 20 as the emulsifier. Glycerol, fructose, and mango flavor were included as viscosity modifier, sweetening, and flavoring agents, respectively. The prepared VD3-loaded NE formulations exhibited high drug content (> 98%), droplet size (DS) ranging from 61.15 to 129.8 nm with narrow size distribution, zeta potential values between - 9.83 and - 19.22 mV, and acceptable pH values (4.59-5.89). Storage stability showed that NE formulations underwent coalescence and phase separation during 6 months at room temperature, whereas at refrigerated conditions, formulations showed slight creaming. The optimum formulation (VD3-NE6) revealed a non-significant DS growth at refrigerated conditions and spherical morphology under transmission electron microscopy. VD3-NE6 did not produce any toxic effects to rats treated orally for 3 months, where normal blood picture and kidney and liver functions were observed compared to control rats. Also, serum calcium, oxidative stress, and apoptosis biomarkers remained within normal levels, indicating the safety of the optimum formulation. Furthermore, evaluation of VD3-NE6 oral bioavailability depicted a significant increase in AUC_0-72 and C_max with decreased T_max compared to plain VD3. The optimum formulation demonstrated improved stability, safety, and oral bioavailability indicating the potential for successful management of vitamin D deficiency in autistic children.

Encapsulation of Vitamins Using Nanoliposome: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Nowadays the importance of vitamins is clear for everyone. However, many patients are suffering from insufficient intake of vitamins. Incomplete intake of different vitamins from food sources due to their destruction during food processing or decrease in their bioavailability when mixing with other food materials, are factors resulting in vitamin deficiency in the body. Therefore, various lipid based nanocarriers such as nanoliposomes were developed to increase the bioavailability of bioactive compounds. Since the function of nanoliposomes containing vitamins on the body has a direct relationship with the quality of produced nanoliposomes, this review study was planned to investigate the several aspects of liposomal characteristics such as size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency on the quality of synthesized vitamin-loaded nanoliposomes.

Fortification by design: A rational approach to designing vitamin D delivery systems for foods and beverages

Over the past few decades, vitamin D deficiency has been recognized as a serious global public health challenge. The World Health Organization has recommended fortification of foods with vitamin D, but this is often challenging because of its low water solubility, poor chemical stability, and low bioavailability. Studies have shown that these challenges can be overcome by encapsulating vitamin D within well-designed delivery systems containing nanoscale or microscale particles. The characteristics of these particles, such as their composition, size, structure, interfacial properties, and charge, can be controlled to attain desired functionality for specific applications. Recently, there has been great interest in the design, production, and application of vitamin-D loaded delivery systems. Many of the delivery systems reported in the literature are unsuitable for widespread application due to the complexity and high costs of the processing operations required to fabricate them, or because they are incompatible with food matrices. In this article, the concept of "fortification by design" is introduced, which involves a systematic approach to the design, production, and testing of colloidal delivery systems for the encapsulation and fortification of oil-soluble vitamins, using vitamin D as a model. Initially, the challenges associated with the incorporation of vitamin D into foods and beverages are reviewed. The fortification by design concept is then described, which involves several steps: (i) selection of appropriate vitamin D form; (ii) selection of appropriate food matrix; (iii) identification of appropriate delivery system; (iv) identification of appropriate production method; (vii) establishment of appropriate testing procedures; and (viii) system optimization.

Applications and perspectives of polyphenol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers for foods

Imbalanced nutrition in modern society is one of the reasons for disorders, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes, which have attracted the interest in bioactives (particularly polyphenols) to assist in the balanced diet of modern people. Although stability can be maintained during preparation and storage, the ingested polyphenols undergo harsh gastrointestinal digestion processes, resulting in limited bioaccessibility and low gut-epithelial permeation and bioavailability. Several lipid-based formulations have been proposed to overcome these issues. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have also been highlighted as carrier systems for the oral delivery of lipophilic bioactives, including polyphenols. This paper summarizes the research on the ingredients, production methods, post-processing procedures, general characteristics, and advantages and disadvantages of SLNs and NLCs. Overall, this paper reviews the applications and perspectives of polyphenol-loaded SLNs and NLCs in foods, as well as their regulation, production, storage, and economic feasibility.

Encapsulation of Catechin into β-Glucan Matrix Using Wet Milling and Ultrasonication as a Coupled Approach: Characterization and Bioactivity Retention

In this study, the nanoencapsulation of catechin into the β-glucan matrix from oats [O-Glu (C)] and barley [B-Glu (C)] was performed using the coupled approach of ultrasonication and wet milling. The nanoencapsulated catechin was characterised by particle size distribution, surface charge, SEM, and FTIR. The particle size was found to be 200 nm and 500 nm while zeta potential was found −27.13 and −24 mV for O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C), respectively. The encapsulation efficiency of O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) was found to be 86.5% and 88.2%. FTIR and SEM revealed successful entrapment of catechin in β-glucan. The encapsulated capsules showed sustainable release during simulated gastrointestinal conditions. Moreover, both O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) showed that biological activity such as lipase inhibition activity and antioxidant assay were retained after in vitro digestion. It was concluded that O-Glu (C) and B-Glu (C) can be used as functional ingredients effectively in food as well as in the pharmaceutical field.

Rapid Determination of Vitamin D3 in Aquatic Products by Polypyrrole-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles Extraction Coupled with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Detection

A method using polypyrrole-coated Fe3O4 (Fe3O4@PPy composites) based extraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography was developed for adsorption and detection of trace vitamin D3 (VD3) in aquatic products. The fabricated Fe3O4@PPy composites were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. Fe3O4@PPy composites showed efficient adsorption of VD3 at pH 9.0 and 25 °C with a dose of 25 mg per 10 mL of sample solution and an adsorption time of 11 min. Methanol was selected as the desorption solvent to recover VD3 from Fe3O4@PPy composites after 3 min of static treatment. Fe3O4@PPy composites can be used for VD3 adsorption at least two times. The developed method showed a good linearity for VD3 determination in the range of 0.1-10 μg/mL with a correlation coefficient of 0.9989. The limits of detection and quantification were 10 ng/mL and 33 ng/mL, respectively. The recovery of VD3 in a spiking test was 97.72% with a relative standard deviation value of 1.78%. The content of VD3 in nine aquatic products was determined with this method. Our results show that Fe3O4@PPy composites provide a convenient method for the adsorption and determination of VD3 from the complex matrix of aquatic products.

Anti-aging properties of phytoconstituents and phyto-nanoemulsions and their application in managing aging-related diseases

Aging is spontaneous and inevitable process in all living beings. It is a complex natural phenomenon that manifests as a gradual decline of physiological functions and homeostasis. Aging inevitably leads to age-associated injuries, diseases, and eventually death. The research on aging-associated diseases aimed at delaying, preventing or even reversing the aging process are of great significance for healthy aging and also for scientific progress. Numerous plant-derived compounds have anti-aging effects, but their therapeutic potential is limited due to their short shelf-life and low bioavailability. As the novel delivery system, nanoemulsion can effectively improve this defect. Nanoemulsions enhance the delivery of drugs to the target site, maintain the plasma concentration for a longer period, and minimize adverse reaction and side effects. This review describes the importance of nanoemulsions for the delivery of phyto-derived compounds and highlights the importance of nanoemulsions in the treatment of aging-related diseases. It also covers the methods of preparation, fate and safety of nanoemulsions, which will provide valuable information for the development of new strategies in treatment of aging-related diseases.

Enrichment of dark chocolate with vitamin D3 (free or liposome) and assessment quality parameters

Liposomes are suitable carrier for bioactive components. Ethanol injection method was chosen for preparation liposomes included vitamin D₃ for addition into dark chocolate [5 µg/serving (10 g)]. Assessment the quality of prepared liposomes were performed by measurement particle size distribution, zeta potential, loading efficiency and FTIR. Loading efficiency was 62.58 ± 1.2%. It could be concluded the chosen method for liposome preparation was suitable. In vitro release of vitamin D₃ from liposome structure showed the release follow Korsmeyer-Peppas model. Fortified chocolate properties included Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC), color indexes, casson viscosity and sensory properties were evaluated. According to the results, there was no significant changes in all tested properties in fortified chocolate than control sample. Vitamin D₃ retention during storage time (0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 70 days) were evaluated and results revealed there was better retention of vitamin D₃ in fortified samples with liposomes than free vitamin D₃. Observation showed addition both forms of vitamin D₃ (free or liposome) had no significant impact on color indexes, rheological properties, DSC parameters as well as sensory characteristics.

Analytical validation of an ultraviolet-visible procedure for determining vitamin D3 in vitamin D3-loaded microparticles and toxigenetic studies for incorporation into food

Vitamin D is a water-insoluble compound presented in two main forms (D₂ and D₃), susceptible to environmental conditions. Microencapsulation is an alternative to supplements and preserve vitamin D properties in foods. Entrapment efficiency (EE) is the main property to evaluate the encapsulation effectiveness and therefore it is of interest the study of analytical methods for the identification and quantification of this compound within the particle. This paper describes a low cost UV-Vis methodology validation to the identification and quantification of vitamin D₃ in microparticles produced by hot homogenization. The method was validated following the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines. To guarantee safe application in foodstuff, microparticles toxigenicity was evaluated with Allium cepa L. in vivo model, showing no cytotoxic nor genotoxic potential. High entrapment efficiency was obtained, the results also demonstrated that the concentration of vitamin D₃ in microparticles can be safely accessed by the validated method.

Fate of β-Carotene within Loaded Delivery Systems in Food: State of Knowledge

Nanotechnology has opened new opportunities for delivering bioactive agents. Their physiochemical characteristics, i.e., small size, high surface area, unique composition, biocompatibility and biodegradability, make these nanomaterials an attractive tool for β-carotene delivery. Delivering β-carotene through nanoparticles does not only improve its bioavailability/bioaccumulation in target tissues, but also lessens its sensitivity against environmental factors during processing. Regardless of these benefits, nanocarriers have some limitations, such as variations in sensory quality, modification of the food matrix, increasing costs, as well as limited consumer acceptance and regulatory challenges. This research area has rapidly evolved, with a plethora of innovative nanoengineered materials now being in use, including micelles, nano/microemulsions, liposomes, niosomes, solidlipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipids and nanostructured carriers. These nanodelivery systems make conventional delivery systems appear archaic and promise better solubilization, protection during processing, improved shelf-life, higher bioavailability as well as controlled and targeted release. This review provides information on the state of knowledge on β-carotene nanodelivery systems adopted for developing functional foods, depicting their classifications, compositions, preparation methods, challenges, release and absorption of β-carotene in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and possible risks and future prospects.

Utilization of Nanotechnology to Improve the Handling, Storage and Biocompatibility of Bioactive Lipids in Food Applications

Bioactive lipids, such as fat-soluble vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acids, carotenoids and phytosterols play an important role in boosting human health and wellbeing. These lipophilic substances cannot be synthesized within the human body, and so people must include them in their diet. There is increasing interest in incorporating these bioactive lipids into functional foods designed to produce certain health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer and cholesterol-lowering properties. However, many of these lipids have poor compatibility with food matrices and low bioavailability because of their extremely low water solubility. Moreover, they may also chemically degrade during food storage or inside the human gut because they are exposed to certain stressors, such as high temperatures, oxygen, light, moisture, pH, and digestive/metabolic enzymes, which again reduces their bioavailability. Nanotechnology is a promising technology that can be used to overcome many of these limitations. The aim of this review is to highlight different kinds of nanoscale delivery systems that have been designed to encapsulate and protect bioactive lipids, thereby facilitating their handling, stability, food matrix compatibility, and bioavailability. These systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), nanoliposomes, nanogels, and nano-particle stabilized Pickering emulsions.

Nanoemulsions for health, food, and cosmetics: a review

Nanoemulsions are gaining importance in healthcare and cosmetics sectors as a result of the unique properties of nanosized droplets, such as high surface area. Here we review nanotechnology and nanoemulsions with focus on emulsifiers and nanoemulsifiers, and applications for drugs and vaccines delivery, cancer therapy, inflammation treatment, cosmetics, perfumes, polymers, and food. We discuss nanoemulsion safety and properties, e.g., stability, emulsification, solubility, molecular number and arrangements, ionic strength, pH and temperature.

Encapsulation of Lipid-Soluble Bioactives by Nanoemulsions

Lipid-soluble bioactives are important nutrients in foods. However, their addition in food formulations, is often limited by limited solubility and high tendency for oxidation. Lipid-soluble bioactives, such as vitamins A, E, D and K, carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and essential oils are generally dispersed in water-based solutions by homogenization. Among the different homogenization technologies available, nanoemulsions are one of the most promising. Accordingly, this review aims to summarize the most recent advances in nanoemulsion technology for the encapsulation of lipid-soluble bioactives. Modern approaches for producing nanoemulsion systems will be discussed. In addition, the challenges on the encapsulation of common food ingredients, including the physical and chemical stability of the nanoemulsion systems, will be also critically examined.

Vitamin D microencapsulation and fortification: Trends and technologies

Today, as per the latest medical reports available, majority of the population throughout globe is facing vitamin D (Vit D) deficiency. Even in sub-tropical countries like India and many others Vit D deficiency is highly prevalent despite the exuberant available sunshine (a major source of Vit D) throughtout the year. The reason could be attributed to an array of factors including socioeconomical, cultural and religious. Further, other than the sunlight, there are very limited sources of Vit D to fulfil the recommended dietary allowance of Vit D (RDA: 400-800 IU per day). A large proportion of Vit D is lost during food processing and storage due to environmental stress conditions such as temperature, pH, salt, oxygen and light. Vita D, an important micronutrient, is essentially required for the prevention of disorders such as neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, cancer etc. in addition to its traditional role in bone metabolism. Therefore, in order to meet the daily requirements of Vit D for human body, WHO has recognized fortification as the most efficient and safest method to address malnutrition. But there are innumerable chellenges involved during food fortification using Vit D as fortificants such as homogeneity into the food matrix, physico-chemical/photochemical degradation, loss during processing and storage, interactions with other components of food matrix resulting into change in taste, texture and appearance thus affecting acceptability, palatability and marketability. Fortification of Vit D into food products especially the ones which have an aqueous portion, is not simple for food technologist. Recent advances in nanotechnology offer various microencapsulation techniques such as liposome, solid-lipid particles, nanostructured lipid carriers, emulsion, spray drying etc. which have been used to design efficient nanomaterials with desired functionality and have great potential for fortification of fortificants like Vit D. The present review is an undate on Vit D, in light of its fortification level, RDA, factors affecting its bioavailability and various microencapsulation techniques adopted to develop Vit D-nanomaterials and their fate in food fortification.

Fabrication of nano-structured lipid carrier for encapsulation of vitamin D3 for fortification of 'Lassi'; A milk based beverage

A phase inversion based cold water dilution method was developed to encapsulate Vitamin D₃ (Vit D) in nano-structured lipid carrier (NLC) by blending caprylic-/capric triglyceride, Leciva S70 and Kolliphor HS®15, Vit D and sodium chloride. To optimize the process; a total of forty one formulations prepared by varying in their composition were tested for presence of NLC. Out of forty one formulations, only thirteen formulations resulted in NLC formation which were further evaluated for their physico-chemical attributes (particle size, zeta potential, transmittance, encapsulation efficiency and Vit D release). During principal component analysis using XLstats it was found that NLC-19, fabricated with 20% (v/v) Kolliphor, 20% (v/v) CCTG and 60% (v/v) water, 2.5% (w/v) Leciva, 2% (w/v) Vit D and 5% (w/v) sodium chloride was the most suitable for purpose of encapsulating Vitamin D. Hence, NLC-19 formulation was further taken up for stability studies under the following environmental stress conditions: (a) Temperature and humidity: accelerated condition: 45 ± 2 °C and RH 75 ± 5%, ambient condition: 25 ± 3 °C and RH 65 ± 5% and refrigerated condition: 6 ± 2 °C and RH 55 ± 5%, (b) pH: 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, and (c) Ionic strength (NaCl concentration): 0 mM, 250 mM, 500 mM and 750 mM. The sensory evaluation of 'Lassi' (fortified with NLC-19) and its acceptability further confirmed the suitability of NLC-19 for the purpose of fortification of Vitamin D₃ in 'Lassi' (A milk based beverage).

Nanoemulsions: Factory for Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics

Nanotechnology, particularly nanoemulsions (NEs), have gained increasing interest from researchers throughout the years. The small-sized droplet with a high surface area makes NEs important in many industries. In this review article, the components, properties, formation, and applications are summarized. The advantages and disadvantages are also described in this article. The formation of the nanosized emulsion can be divided into two types: high and low energy methods. In high energy methods, high-pressure homogenization, microfluidization, and ultrasonic emulsification are described thoroughly. Spontaneous emulsification, phase inversion temperature (PIT), phase inversion composition (PIC), and the less known D-phase emulsification (DPE) methods are emphasized in low energy methods. The applications of NEs are described in three main areas which are food, cosmetics, and drug delivery.