Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development

Effects of maternal androgens and their metabolite etiocholanolone on prenatal development in birds

Offspring phenotypes can be affected by maternal testosterone and androstenedione (A4), which are considered a tool of mothers to adjust offspring to a fluctuating environment. Yet testosterone and A4 are very rapidly metabolized by developing avian embryos, suggesting that either the maternal testosterone and A4 have potent organizational effects on the embryos extremely early before being metabolized or it is the metabolites that evoke phenotypic variation in the offspring. One of the metabolites, etiocholanolone, increases substantially during early embryonic development and is a likely candidate for mediating maternal effects as it can promote erythropoiesis. To investigate and compare the effects of testosterone and A4 with the possible effects of etiocholanolone during prenatal embryonic development, we increased their levels in black-headed gull eggs (Larus ridibundus), and used sham-injected eggs as controls. This species usually has 3-egg clutches in which maternal androgen levels increase with the egg-laying sequence. We analysed embryonic heart rate, peri-hatching biometric traits, the ratio of white to red blood cells (W/R ratio) and bursa development. We found that testosterone and A4 treatment increased embryonic heart rate irrespective of egg-laying sequence and decreased bill length and W/R ratio, whereas etiocholanolone did not mimic these effects. Instead, etiocholanolone treatment decreased tarsus length and brain mass. Our finding that etiocholanolone does not mimic the effects induced by testosterone and A4 suggests that the embryonic metabolism of maternal testosterone and A4 can potentially diversify the function of these maternal androgens.

Comparative steroid profiling of newborn hair and umbilical cord serum highlights the role of fetal adrenals, placenta, and pregnancy outcomes in fetal steroid metabolism

Previous steroid hormone studies concerning pregnancy and newborns have mainly focused on glucocorticoids; wider steroid profiles have been less commonly investigated. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of 17 steroids from newborn hair and umbilical cord serum at the time of delivery. The study participants (n = 42, 50% girls) were a part of the Kuopio Birth Cohort and represent usual Finnish pregnancies. The hair and cord serum samples were analyzed with liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry and triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. We detected high individual variations in steroid hormone concentrations in both sample matrices. The concentrations of cortisol (F), corticosterone (B), estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), 11β-hydroxyandostenedione (11bOHA4), 5α-androstanedione (DHA4), and 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) correlated positively between cord serum and newborn hair samples. In addition, F and 11bOHA4 concentrations correlated positively with each other in both newborn hair and cord serum samples. The cortisone-to-cortisol ratio (E/F) was significantly higher in cord serum than in newborn hair samples reflecting high placental 11βHSD2 enzyme activity. Only minor sex differences in steroid concentrations were observed; higher testosterone (T) and 11-deoxycortisol (S) with lower 11bOHA4 in male cord serum, and higher DHEA, androstenedione (A4) and 11bOHA4 in female newborn hair samples. Parity and delivery mode were the most significant pregnancy- and birth-related parameters associating with F and some other adrenocortical steroid concentrations. This study provides novel information about intrauterine steroid metabolism in late pregnancy and typical concentration ranges for several newborn hair steroids, including also 11-oxygenated androgens.

11-Oxyandrogens from the viewpoint of pediatric endocrinology

11-Oxyandrogens, such as 11-ketotestosterone (11-KT), 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11-KDHT), 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11-OHT), 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11-OHA4), and 11-KA4, are newly specified human androgens. These 11-oxyandrogens are present in the cord blood and placenta, as well as in the blood of men and women of various ages, and are produced primarily in the adrenal gland. Accumulating evidence suggests that these steroids contribute to androgen excess in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency or polycystic ovary syndrome. More importantly, unlike classic androgens, 11-oxyandrogens produced in maternal tumors can pass through the placenta without being converted into estrogens, and cause severe virilization of female fetuses. Thus, overproduction of 11-oxyandrogens represents a new mechanism of 46,XX disorders of sex development. On the other hand, the physiological roles of 11-oxyandrogens remain to be clarified. This mini-review introduces the current understanding of 11-oxyandrogens, from the perspective of pediatric endocrinology.