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Francisco TN, Albuquerque HMT, Silva AMS. An In-Depth Exploration of Six Decades of the Kröhnke Pyridine Synthesis. Chemistry 2024; 30:e202401672. [PMID: 38887986 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202401672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
The Kröhnke Pyridine Synthesis has been discovered about six decades ago (1961), by Fritz Kröhnke and Wilfried Zecher at the University of Giessen. The original method involved the reaction of α-pyridinium methyl ketone salts with α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds in the presence of a nitrogen source, frequently ammonium acetate. Since its discovery, the Kröhnke methodology has been demonstrated to be suitable for the preparation of mono-, di-, tri- and tetra-pyridines, with important applications in several research fields. Over the years, a number of modifications to the original approach have been developed and reported, enabling for the broad applicability of these methods even in modern days, also for the synthesis of non-pyridine compounds. In this critical and tutorial review, we will thoroughly explore and discuss the potential of the original method, the refinements that have been made over the years, as well as some applications arising from each type of pyridine and/or non-pyridine compounds produced by Kröhnke's approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Telmo N Francisco
- LAQV-REQUIMTE & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Hélio M T Albuquerque
- LAQV-REQUIMTE & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Artur M S Silva
- LAQV-REQUIMTE & Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
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Pivarcsik T, Kiss MA, Rapuš U, Kljun J, Spengler G, Frank É, Turel I, Enyedy ÉA. Organometallic Ru(II), Rh(III) and Re(I) complexes of sterane-based bidentate ligands: synthesis, solution speciation, interaction with biomolecules and anticancer activity. Dalton Trans 2024; 53:4984-5000. [PMID: 38406993 DOI: 10.1039/d3dt04138g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we present the synthesis, characterization and in vitro cytotoxicity of six organometallic [Ru(II)(η6-p-cymene)(N,N)Cl]Cl, [Rh(III)(η5-C5Me5)(N,N)Cl]Cl and [Re(I)(CO)3(N,N)Cl] complexes, in which the (N,N) ligands are sterane-based 2,2'-bipyridine derivatives (4-Me-bpy-St-OH, 4-Ph-bpy-St-OH). The solution chemical behavior of the ligands and the complexes was explored by UV-visible spectrophotometry and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The ligands and their Re(I) complexes are neutral at pH = 7.40; this contributes to their highly lipophilic character (log D7.40 > +3). The Ru(II) and Rh(III) half-sandwich complexes are much more hydrophilic, and this property is greatly affected by the actual chloride ion content of the medium. The half-sandwich Ru and Rh complexes are highly stable in 30% (v/v) DMSO/water (<5% dissociation at pH = 7.40); this is further increased in water. The Rh(III)(η5-C5Me5) complexes were characterized by higher water/chloride exchange and pKa constants compared to their Ru(II)(η6-p-cymene) counterparts. The Re(I)(CO)3 complexes are also stable in solution over a wide pH range (2-12) without the release of the bidentate ligand; only the chlorido co-ligand can be replaced with OH- at higher pH values. A comprehensive discussion of the binding affinity of the half-sandwich Ru(II) and Rh(III) complexes toward human serum albumin and calf-thymus DNA is also provided. The Ru(II)(η6-p-cymene) complexes interact with human serum albumin via intermolecular forces, while for the Rh(III)(η5-C5Me5) complexes the coordinative binding mode is suggested as well. They are also able to interact with calf-thymus DNA, most likely via the coordination of the guanine nitrogen. The Ru(II)(η6-p-cymene) complexes were found to be the most promising among the tested compounds as they exhibited moderate-to-strong cytotoxic activity (IC50 = 3-11 μM) in LNCaP as well as in PC3 prostate cells in an androgen receptor-independent manner. They were also significantly cytotoxic in breast and colon adenocarcinoma cancer cell lines and showed good selectivity for cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Pivarcsik
- MTA-SZTE Lendület Functional Metal Complexes Research Group, Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
- Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Márton A Kiss
- Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Uroš Rapuš
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jakob Kljun
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gabriella Spengler
- MTA-SZTE Lendület Functional Metal Complexes Research Group, Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Center and Albert Szent-Györgyi Medical School, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, H-6725 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Éva Frank
- Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Iztok Turel
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 113, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Éva A Enyedy
- MTA-SZTE Lendület Functional Metal Complexes Research Group, Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Excellence Centre, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary.
- Department of Molecular and Analytical Chemistry, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 7-8., H-6720 Szeged, Hungary
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Hammouda MM, Elattar KM, Rashed MM, Osman AMA. Synthesis, biological activities, and future perspectives of steroidal monocyclic pyridines. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:1934-1972. [PMID: 37859725 PMCID: PMC10583814 DOI: 10.1039/d3md00411b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Steroidal pyridines are a class of compounds that have been the subject of extensive research in recent years due to their potential biological activities. The introduction of a pyridine ring into the steroid skeleton can significantly alter the chemical and biological properties of the compound, making it more potent and/or selective for a particular target. Different synthetic methods have been developed for the preparation of steroidal pyridines. This review provides an overview of the synthesis, biological activities, and future perspectives of steroidal monocyclic dihydropyridines, tetrahydropyridines, and pyridines from 2005 to the present. The different synthetic methods that have been developed for the preparation of these steroids are discussed, as well as the proposed mechanisms and the biological activities that have been reported. Finally, the potential of steroidal monocyclic pyridines for the development of new drugs is discussed. This review is intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the field of steroidal monocyclic pyridines for researchers and scientists who are interested in this area of research. It is also hoped that this review will stimulate further research into the synthesis and biological activities of steroidal pyridines to develop new and improved drugs for the treatment of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed M Hammouda
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Humanities in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University Al-Kharj 11942 Saudi Arabia
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University El-Gomhoria Street Mansoura 35516 Egypt
| | - Khaled M Elattar
- Unit of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University El-Gomhoria Street Mansoura 35516 Egypt +201010655354
| | - Marwa M Rashed
- Toxicology Department, Mansoura Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University El-Gomhoria Street Mansoura 35516 Egypt
| | - Amany M A Osman
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Humanities in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University Al-Kharj 11942 Saudi Arabia
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University Shebin El-Koam Egypt
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