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Limmeroth J, Pauly H, Schücker L, Zenko Z, Hagemann N. Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024; 73:102616. [PMID: 38417594 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Limmeroth
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, University of Kassel, Germany.
| | - Hannah Pauly
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Linda Schücker
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Zachary Zenko
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Bakersfield, USA
| | - Norbert Hagemann
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, University of Kassel, Germany
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2
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Zenko Z, Hall EE, Bixby WR. The effects of affect-guided interval training on pleasure, enjoyment, and autonomy: A registered report. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024; 73:102611. [PMID: 38490596 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2024.102611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
This registered report tested the effects of a novel exercise protocol, namely affect-guided interval training, on motivationally relevant variables of remembered pleasure, forecasted pleasure, enjoyment, and autonomy. Affect-guided interval training (AIT) consisted of 60-s intervals that alternated between the highest pleasant intensity and lowest pleasant intensity for 20 min; this was intended to minimize the potential displeasure of traditional high-intensity interval training. The novel protocol was compared to self-selected exercise intensity (30 min) and high-intensity interval training (60-s intervals for 20 min). All sessions were, on average, vigorous in intensity (80-89% peak heart rate). Data indicate that the AIT session was experienced as the most pleasant, had the most pleasant slope of affect, was remembered as the most pleasant, resulted in the most positive affective forecasts, and was the most enjoyable. Both the affect-guided interval session and self-selected exercise session resulted in greater autonomy than high-intensity interval training. Several evaluative and motivationally relevant variables, including (a) remembered pleasure, (b) enjoyment, and (c) forecasted pleasure were predicted by (a) experienced pleasure, the (b) pleasure experienced at the end of exercise, and (c) the slope of pleasure experienced throughout the exercise session. Overall, this study suggests that affect-guided interval training is a feasible and positive alternative that can be included as a viable option for exercise programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Zenko
- Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Bakersfield, United States.
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Pompa D, Carson HJ, Beato M, di Fronso S, Bertollo M. Attentional Focus Effects on Lower-Limb Muscular Strength in Athletes: A Systematic Review. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:419-434. [PMID: 38154026 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Pompa, D, Carson, HJ, Beato, M, di Fronso, S, and Bertollo, M. Attentional focus effects on lower-limb muscular strength in athletes: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 419-434, 2024-Evidence links an athlete's focus of attention to enhancing strength performance. However, additional research is needed to investigate the applicability of studies beyond the tasks and population currently examined. Therefore, we aimed to systematically review studies concerning attentional focus effects on strength characteristics on lower-limb tasks in athletes. Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were searched using PRISMA PERSIST guidelines and keywords related to the focus of attention, force production processes, and athletes. Subjects were categorized: world class (tier 5); elite (tier 4); highly trained (tier 3); trained/developmental (tier 2); nonathletes (tiers 1-0); and mixed (different levels). Fifteen of 296 studies met the inclusion criteria. Included studies investigated the focus of attention effects on performance ( n = 6), between skill levels ( n = 2), and for learning ( n = 5), with respect to subject preference ( n = 1); one study did not state the aim. Studies achieved an average risk of bias score of "excellent"; however, findings suffered in the assessment of certainty. Only 2 studies reported an advantage for one type of attentional focus (external focus) across conditions ( g = 0.13-0.42) with tier 2 and mixed tier athletes. Research does not address the needs of elite athletes, and there is limited evidence on each type of strength characteristics and muscle action. There is also a need to incorporate methodological steps to promote task-relevant instructions. Research should focus on contextualized information within professional practice to offer stronger translational implications for athletes and coaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Pompa
- BIND-Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics Center, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Howie J Carson
- Human Performance Science Research Group, Institute for Sport, Physical Education and Health Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; and
| | - Marco Beato
- School of Health and Sports Sciences, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
| | - Selenia di Fronso
- BIND-Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics Center, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Maurizio Bertollo
- BIND-Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics Center, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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di Fronso S, Robazza C, Pompa D, Bertollo M. Dreaming while awake: The beneficial effects of yoga Nidra on mental and physical recovery in two elite karate athletes. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24180. [PMID: 38268574 PMCID: PMC10806354 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Yoga Nidra (YN) naturally stimulates a hypnagogic state wherein an individual is physiologically asleep yet maintains a certain awareness to follow a guide's instructions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of this aware sleep state on recovery-stress balance in two elite karate athletes adopting an idiosyncratic and multimodal approach. One male and one female athlete underwent a YN intervention. Before intervention, after intervention and three weeks later, recovery-stress balance specific scales, perceived stress, cognitive and somatic anxiety, subjective and objective sleep quality, and individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) values were assessed. Perceived quality of recovery was continuously monitored for three months including the period of the investigation. Feelings and arousal levels before and after each YN session were also examined. Our results showed a YN general positive effect; however, the intervention had higher sport specific effects in the male compared to the female athlete. On the other hand, in the female athlete, YN seems to have effects both from an emotional and physical point of view. We also noted the intertwined relationship among interoception, perceived stress and YN effects. Also, findings suggest that iAPF modulation reflected improved recovery skills or a better control of stressful situations, while the acute effects on arousal levels were expression of anxiety or energy reduction. Overall, YN improved both the perceived quality of recovery and sleep quality, shedding light on the importance of YN for recovery-stress balance enhancement in the sport context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selenia di Fronso
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Claudio Robazza
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Dario Pompa
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Maurizio Bertollo
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University “G. d’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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Bigliassi M, Cabral DF, Kotler S, Mannino M, Mavrantza AM, Oparina E, Gomes-Osman J. Electroencephalography spectral coherence analysis during cycle ergometry in low- and high-tolerant individuals. Psychophysiology 2024; 61:e14437. [PMID: 37665009 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of this study was to further understanding of the patterns of spectral connectivity during exercise in low- and high-tolerant individuals. Thirty-nine healthy individuals (i.e., 17 low- and 22 high-tolerant participants) took part in the present study. A state-of-the-art portable electroencephalography system was used to measure the brain's electrical activity during an incremental exercise test performed until the point of volitional exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Spectral coherence was used to explore the patterns of connectivity in the frontal, central, and parietal regions of the brain. Physiological, perceptual, and affective responses were assessed throughout the exercise bout. The spontaneous eyeblink rate was also calculated prior to commencement and upon completion of the exercise trial as an indirect assessment of the dopaminergic system. The present findings indicate that high-tolerant individuals reported lower levels of perceived activation, especially during the preliminary stages of the exercise test. Participants in the high-tolerance group also reported greater levels of remembered pleasure upon completion of the exercise test. The data also revealed that high-tolerant individuals exhibited increased connectivity of theta waves between frontal, central, and parietal electrode sites and increased connectivity of beta waves, primarily within the parietal cortex. Correlational analysis indicated the possibility that low- and high-tolerant individuals make use of different neural networks to process and regulate their psychophysiological state during exercise-related situations. This strategy could potentially represent a conscious decision to downregulate affective arousal and facilitate the neural control of working muscles during situations of physical stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Bigliassi
- Department of Teaching and Learning, Florida International University, North Miami, Florida, USA
- Flow Research Collective, Gardnerville, Nevada, USA
| | - Danylo F Cabral
- Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Michael Mannino
- Flow Research Collective, Gardnerville, Nevada, USA
- Artifical Intelligence Center, Miami Dade College, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Angeliki M Mavrantza
- Department of Teaching and Learning, Florida International University, North Miami, Florida, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Ekaterina Oparina
- Department of Teaching and Learning, Florida International University, North Miami, Florida, USA
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Limmeroth J, Schücker L, Hagemann N. Don't stop focusing when it gets harder! The positive effects of focused attention on affective experience at high intensities. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:2018-2027. [PMID: 36208457 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2127511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2022]
Abstract
Experiencing negative affect during exercise partially explains high levels of physical inactivity. An important direction for research is to better understand how and why interindividual differences in affective experiences occur while exercising. The dual-mode theory suggests that the interaction of cognitive processes and interoceptive cues influence the affective response. Hence, attentional control in form of adopting an external or internal attentional focus could lead to different affective responses depending on intensity. This study examines possible interactions between self-selected running intensities and attentional focus on affect. Fifty-eight inexperienced runners (30.14 ± 9.19 years; 38% female) ran 9 × 3 min outdoors around a large pond. While running at three intensities, they were instructed to focus on their breathing, on the environment, or did not receive an instruction. Dependent measures were affect, heart rate, and speed. The results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on affect (p = .01, η2p = .08). At subjectively perceived light intensity, participants' affective outcomes benefit from non-focusing attention, whereas during hard intensity the opposite seems helpful: to focus on breathing or to the environment. These findings shed new light on the interaction of focusing attention and running intensity to improve the affective experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Limmeroth
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
| | - Linda Schücker
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Norbert Hagemann
- Institute of Sports and Sports Science, University of Kassel, Kassel, Germany
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Meyer T, de Pechpeyrou P, Kolanska-Stronka M, Dru V. Promoting a hand sanitizer by persuasive messages: moving bottle and background color as approach and avoidance cues. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 42:1-13. [PMID: 36124045 PMCID: PMC9474274 DOI: 10.1007/s12144-022-03632-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
In message-based health interventions, peripheral cues such as motion and color capture exogenous attention. These cues may elicit approach and avoidance motivation and the core ingredients of persuasion (argument framing, source of the message, and persuasion knowledge). In two studies, we presented participants with persuasive messages about a hand sanitizer. Messages varied by the framing of the arguments (gain vs. loss) and by the source of the message (healthcare industry vs. public health agency). In Study 1 (N = 137), the forward apparent motion of the hand sanitizer bottle compared to a backward apparent motion increased a positive attitude toward the hand sanitizer, the intention to buy it, and ease of judgment. In Study 2 (N = 280), a small main positive effect of a green background was observed for attractiveness of the hand sanitizer, but only when a green background followed a red one. Green (vs. red) background increased willingness to buy the hand sanitizer. We observed no main effects of argument framing or source of the message. The discussion emphasizes approach and avoidance motivation as a common framework for understanding the respective contribution of peripheral cues and core ingredients of messages to the persuasion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Meyer
- University Paris Nanterre, 200 avenue de la Republique, 92000 Nanterre, France
| | | | | | - Vincent Dru
- University Paris Nanterre, 200 avenue de la Republique, 92000 Nanterre, France
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Bertollo M, Santi G, di Fronso S. Comment on: "Development of a Revised Conceptual Framework of Physical Training for Use in Research". Sports Med 2022; 52:949-951. [PMID: 34978658 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01629-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Bertollo
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy.
| | - Giampaolo Santi
- Department for Life Quality Studies, Alma Mater Studiorum-University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Selenia di Fronso
- Behavioral Imaging and Neural Dynamics (BIND) Center, Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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Jekauc D, Fritsch J, Latinjak AT. Toward a Theory of Emotions in Competitive Sports. Front Psychol 2021; 12:790423. [PMID: 34975686 PMCID: PMC8716387 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we introduce a theory on the dynamic development of affective processes, affect regulation, and the relationship between emotions and sport performance. The theory focusses on how affective processes emerge and develop during competitive sport involvement. Based on Scherer's component process model, we postulate six components of emotion that interact with each other in a circular fashion: (I) triggering processes, (II) physiological reactions, (III) action tendencies, (IV) expressive behaviors, (V) subjective experience, and (VI) higher cognitive processes. The theory stresses the dynamics of affective processes and describes the consequences for performance in competitive sports. It assumes that the peculiarities of different sports must be taken into account in order to understand the affective processes, and offers starting points on which strategies can be used to effectively regulate affective states. Consequences for research and practice are derived and discussed. To study the development of affective processes, future research should test the assumptions in ecologically valid contexts, such as real competitions or competition-like situations, using multi-component measures of emotions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darko Jekauc
- Department for Health Education and Sport Psychology, Institute for Sport and Sport Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Julian Fritsch
- Department for Health Education and Sport Psychology, Institute for Sport and Sport Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Alexander T. Latinjak
- Department for Psychology and Education, School of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Suffolk, Ipswich, United Kingdom
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Hoyle B, Taylor J, Zugic L, Filho E. Coordination Cost and Super-Efficiency in Teamwork: The Role of Communication, Psychological States, Cardiovascular Responses, and Brain Rhythms. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2020; 45:323-341. [PMID: 32562032 PMCID: PMC7644465 DOI: 10.1007/s10484-020-09479-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
To advance knowledge on the psychophysiological markers of "coordination cost" in team settings, we explored differences in meta-communication patterns (i.e., silence, speaking, listening, and overlap), perceived psychological states (i.e., core affect, attention, efficacy beliefs), heart rate variability (i.e., RMSSD), and brain rhythms (i.e., alpha, beta and theta absolute power) across three studies involving 48 male dyads (Mage = 21.30; SD = 2.03). Skilled participants cooperatively played three consecutive FIFA-17 (Xbox) games in a dyad against the computer, or competed against the computer in a solo condition and a dyad condition. We observed that playing in a team, in contrast to playing alone, was associated with higher alpha peak and global efficiency in the brain and, at the same time, led to an increase in focused attention as evidenced by participants' higher theta activity in the frontal lobe. Moreover, we observed that overtime participants' brain dynamics moved towards a state of "neural-efficiency", characterized by increased theta and beta activity in the frontal lobe, and high alpha activity across the whole brain. Our findings advance the literature by demonstrating that (1) the notion of coordination cost can be captured at the neural level in the initial stages of team development; (2) by decreasing the costs of switching between tasks, teamwork increases both individuals' attentional focus and global neural efficiency; and (3) communication dynamics become more proficient and individuals' brain patterns change towards neural efficiency over time, likely due to team learning and decreases in intra-team conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Hoyle
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Darwin Building 114, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
- Social Interaction and Performance Science (SINAPSE) Lab, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Jamie Taylor
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Darwin Building 114, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
| | - Luca Zugic
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Darwin Building 114, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK
- Social Interaction and Performance Science (SINAPSE) Lab, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK
| | - Edson Filho
- School of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Darwin Building 114, Preston, PR1 2HE, UK.
- Social Interaction and Performance Science (SINAPSE) Lab, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK.
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Astokorki A, Flood A, Mauger A. Images depicting human pain increase exercise-induced pain and impair endurance cycling performance. J Sports Sci 2020; 39:138-146. [PMID: 32809900 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1809162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The current study investigated whether viewing images of others in pain influences exercise-induced pain (EIP) and cycling performance. Twenty-one recreational cyclists attended five laboratory visits. The first two visits involved measuring participants' maximal aerobic capacity and familiarized participants to the fixed power (FP) and 16.1 km cycling time trial (TT) tasks. The FP task required participants to cycle at 70% of their maximal aerobic power for 10-minutes. In the subsequent three visits, participants performed the FP and TT tasks after viewing pleasant, painful or neutral images. Participants rated the subset of painful images as more painful than the pleasant and neutral images; with no difference in the pain ratings of the pleasant and neutral images. In the FP task, EIP ratings were higher following painful compared to pleasant images, while no differences in EIP were observed between any other condition . In the TT, performance did not differ between the pleasant and neutral conditions. However, TT performance was reduced after viewing painful images compared to neutral or pleasant images. HR, B[La], perceived exertion and EIP did not differ between the three conditions. These results suggest that viewing painful images decreases TT performance and increases pain during fixed intensity cycling. Abbreviations: EIP: Exercise Induced Pain; FP: Fixed Power; TT: Time Trial; HR:Heart Rate; B[La]: Blood Lactate; RPE: Rating of Perceived Exertion; IAPS: International Affective Picture System; PO: Power Output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Astokorki
- College of Education-Shaqlawa, Salahaddin University-Erbil , Shaqlawa, Iraq.,Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Health Technology, Cihan University-Erbil , Erbil, Iraq.,College of Science, Pathological Analysis, Knowledge University , Erbil, Iraq
| | - Andrew Flood
- Research Institute for Sport & Exercise, University of Canberra , Canberra, Australia.,Centre for Applied Psychology, University of Canberra , Australian Capital Territory, Canberra, Australia
| | - Alexis Mauger
- Endurance Research Group, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Kent , Chatham, UK
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