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Broge NLN, Bertelsen AD, Nielsen IG, Kløve M, Roelsgaard M, Dippel AC, Jørgensen MRV, Iversen BB. Exploration of anion effects in solvothermal synthesis using in situ X-ray diffraction. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:12121-12132. [PMID: 38587495 DOI: 10.1039/d4cp00541d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Solvothermal synthesis presents a facile and highly flexible approach to chemical processing and it is widely used for preparation of micro- and nanosized inorganic materials. The large number of synthesis parameters in combination with the richness of inorganic chemistry means that it is difficult to predict or design synthesis outcomes, and it is demanding to uncover the effect of different parameters due to the sealed and complex nature of solvothermal reactors along with the time demands related to reactor cleaning, sample purification, and characterization. This study explores the effect on formation of crystalline products of six common anions in solvothermal treatment of aqueous and ethanolic precursors. Three different cations are included in the study (Mn2+, Co2+, Cu2+) representing chemical affinities towards different regions of the periodic table with respect to the hard soft acid base (HSAB) classification and the Goldschmidt classification. They additionally belong to the commonly used 3d transition metals and display a suitable variety in solvothermal chemistry to highlight anion effects. The results of the solvothermal in situ experiments demonstrate a clear effect of the precursor anions, with respect to whether crystallization occurs or not and the characteristics of the formed phases. Additionally, some of the anions are shown to be redox active and to influence the formation temperature of certain phases which in turn relates to the observed average crystallite sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Lau Nyborg Broge
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Andreas Dueholm Bertelsen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | | | - Magnus Kløve
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Martin Roelsgaard
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Ann-Christin Dippel
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestraße 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mads Ry Vogel Jørgensen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
- MAX IV Laboratory, Lund University, 224 84 Lund, Sweden
| | - Bo Brummerstedt Iversen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
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A novel spiral infinity reactor for continuous hydrothermal synthesis of nanoparticles. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8616. [PMID: 35597787 PMCID: PMC9124214 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-11141-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrothermal synthesis is an attractive route to make nanoparticles utilizing inexpensive precursors under moderate process conditions. Though it provides flexibility and robustness in controlling particle characteristics, process scale-up for continuous production is a major challenge. A novel 'infinity-' shaped spiral continuous flow reactor is proposed here, to exploit the large density difference between the precursor solution and supercritical water to provide rapid mixing, leading to uniform conditions for reaction kinetics and particle growth. Hydrothermal synthesis is simulated by coupling computational fluid dynamics with population balance modeling and appropriate reaction kinetics. Simulations indicate three distinct regimes of declining, recovering, and stable flow fields. These regimes are strongly dependent on the flow ratio between the precursor solution and supercritical water. The infinity reactor provides two distinct reaction environments: initial turns of the spiral which serve as a mixed flow reactor facilitating rapid mixing and uniform reaction, followed by a plug flow reactor stabilizing the particle growth. It produces particles with a relatively small mean diameter and a narrow size distribution in comparison to the conventional batch stirred tank reactor and the T-mixer.
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3
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Saha D, Bøjesen ED, Mamakhel AH, Iversen BB. Why Does Bi 2WO 6 Visible-Light Photocatalyst Always Form as Nanoplatelets? Inorg Chem 2020; 59:9364-9373. [PMID: 32567841 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.0c01249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Bi2WO6 nanocrystals exhibit excellent photocatalytic properties in the visible range of the solar spectrum, and intense efforts are directed at designing effective synthesis processes with control of size, morphology, and hierarchical structure. All known hydrothermal syntheses produce either nanoplatelet morphology or hierarchical structures based on such primary entities. Here we investigate the nucleation and growth of Bi2WO6 nanocrystals under hydrothermal conditions using in situ X-ray total scattering (TS) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) measurements. It is shown that the preferential growth of Bi2WO6 nanoplates is due to the presence of disordered layers of Bi2O22+ molecular complexes in the precursor solution with an approximate length of 13 Å. These layers interact with tetrahedral WO42- molecular units and eventually form the disordered cubic (Bi0.933W0.067)O1.6) crystalline phase. When enough tungsten units are intertwined between Bi2O22+ layers formation of Bi2WO6 pristine nanoplates takes place by necessary sideways addition of units in the ac plane. The experimentally observed formation mechanism suggests that the Bi/W atomic ratio must play a central role in the nucleation (assembly of initial crystal layers). Indeed, it is observed in separate continuous flow supercritical synthesis that for a stoichiometric (Bi/W = 2:1) precursor, a (Bi0.933W0.067)O1.6) impurity phase is always observed together with the main Bi2WO6 product. Excess tungsten is required in the precursor to form phase-pure Bi2WO6 material. Thus, the present study also reports a fast, scalable, and green method for production of this highly attractive photocatalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipankar Saha
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Espen D Bøjesen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Aref Hasen Mamakhel
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Bo B Iversen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
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4
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Darr JA, Zhang J, Makwana NM, Weng X. Continuous Hydrothermal Synthesis of Inorganic Nanoparticles: Applications and Future Directions. Chem Rev 2017; 117:11125-11238. [PMID: 28771006 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nanomaterials are at the leading edge of the emerging field of nanotechnology. Their unique and tunable size-dependent properties (in the range 1-100 nm) make these materials indispensable in many modern technological applications. In this Review, we summarize the state-of-art in the manufacture and applications of inorganic nanoparticles made using continuous hydrothermal flow synthesis (CHFS) processes. First, we introduce ideal requirements of any flow process for nanoceramics production, outline different approaches to CHFS, and introduce the pertinent properties of supercritical water and issues around mixing in flow, to generate nanoparticles. This Review then gives comprehensive coverage of the current application space for CHFS-made nanomaterials including optical, healthcare, electronics (including sensors, information, and communication technologies), catalysis, devices (including energy harvesting/conversion/fuels), and energy storage applications. Thereafter, topics of precursor chemistry and products, as well as materials or structures, are discussed (surface-functionalized hybrids, nanocomposites, nanograined coatings and monoliths, and metal-organic frameworks). Later, this Review focuses on some of the key apparatus innovations in the field, such as in situ flow/rapid heating systems (to investigate kinetics and mechanisms), approaches to high throughput flow syntheses (for nanomaterials discovery), as well as recent developments in scale-up of hydrothermal flow processes. Finally, this Review covers environmental considerations, future directions and capabilities, along with the conclusions and outlook.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jawwad A Darr
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, Christopher Ingold Laboratories , 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jingyi Zhang
- Department of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University , 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Neel M Makwana
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, Christopher Ingold Laboratories , 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom
| | - Xiaole Weng
- Department of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University , 866 Yuhangtang Road, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, People's Republic of China
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Bøjesen ED, Jensen KMØ, Tyrsted C, Mamakhel A, Andersen HL, Reardon H, Chevalier J, Dippel AC, Iversen BB. The chemistry of ZnWO 4 nanoparticle formation. Chem Sci 2016; 7:6394-6406. [PMID: 28451095 PMCID: PMC5355961 DOI: 10.1039/c6sc01580h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The need for a new approach to describing nanoparticle nucleation and growth different from the classical models is highlighted. In and ex situ total scattering experiments combined with additional characterization techniques are used to unravel the chemistry dictating ZnWO4 formation.
The need for a change away from classical nucleation and growth models for the description of nanoparticle formation is highlighted. By the use of in situ total X-ray scattering experiments the transformation of an aqueous polyoxometalate precursor mixture to crystalline ZnWO4 nanoparticles under hydrothermal conditions was followed. The precursor solution is shown to consist of specific Tourné-type sandwich complexes. The formation of pristine ZnWO4 within seconds is understood on the basis of local restructuring and three-dimensional reordering preceding the emergence of long range order in ZnWO4 nanoparticles. An observed temperature dependent trend in defect concentration can be rationalized based on the proposed formation mechanism. Following nucleation the individual crystallites were found to grow into prolate morphology with elongation along the unit cell c-direction. Extensive electron microscopy characterization provided evidence for particle growth by oriented attachment; a notion supported by sudden particle size increases observed in the in situ total scattering experiments. A simple continuous hydrothermal flow method was devised to synthesize highly crystalline monoclinic zinc tungstate (ZnWO4) nanoparticles in large scale in less than one minute. The present results highlight the profound influence of structural similarities in local structure between reactants and final materials in determining the specific nucleation of nanostructures and thus explains the potential success of a given synthesis procedure in producing nanocrystals. It demonstrates the need for abolishing outdated nucleation models, which ignore subtle yet highly important system dependent differences in the chemistry of the forming nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Espen D Bøjesen
- Center for Materials Crystallography , Department of Chemistry and iNANO , Aarhus University , Langelandsgade 140 , DK-8000 , Aarhus , Denmark .
| | - Kirsten M Ø Jensen
- Department of Chemistry , University of Copenhagen , 2100 København Ø , Denmark
| | | | - Aref Mamakhel
- Center for Materials Crystallography , Department of Chemistry and iNANO , Aarhus University , Langelandsgade 140 , DK-8000 , Aarhus , Denmark .
| | - Henrik L Andersen
- Center for Materials Crystallography , Department of Chemistry and iNANO , Aarhus University , Langelandsgade 140 , DK-8000 , Aarhus , Denmark .
| | - Hazel Reardon
- Center for Materials Crystallography , Department of Chemistry and iNANO , Aarhus University , Langelandsgade 140 , DK-8000 , Aarhus , Denmark .
| | - Jacques Chevalier
- Department of Physics and Astronomy , Aarhus University , Ny Munkegade 120 , DK-8000 Aarhus C , Denmark
| | - Ann-Christin Dippel
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY , Photon Science Division , Notkestrasse 85 , D-22607 Hamburg , Germany
| | - Bo B Iversen
- Center for Materials Crystallography , Department of Chemistry and iNANO , Aarhus University , Langelandsgade 140 , DK-8000 , Aarhus , Denmark .
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Sugioka KI, Ozawa K, Kubo M, Tsukada T, Takami S, Adschiri T, Sugimoto K, Takenaka N, Saito Y. Relationship between size distribution of synthesized nanoparticles and flow and thermal fields in a flow-type reactor for supercritical hydrothermal synthesis. J Supercrit Fluids 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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7
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Hellstern HL, Becker J, Hald P, Bremholm M, Mamakhel A, Iversen BB. Development of a Dual-Stage Continuous Flow Reactor for Hydrothermal Synthesis of Hybrid Nanoparticles. Ind Eng Chem Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.5b02899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Henrik L. Hellstern
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
| | - Jacob Becker
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
| | - Peter Hald
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
| | - Martin Bremholm
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
| | - Aref Mamakhel
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
| | - Bo Brummerstedt Iversen
- Center for Materials Crystallography,
Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade
140, 8000 Aarhus
C, Denmark
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Dunne PW, Starkey CL, Gimeno-Fabra M, Lester EH. The rapid size- and shape-controlled continuous hydrothermal synthesis of metal sulphide nanomaterials. NANOSCALE 2014; 6:2406-2418. [PMID: 24435800 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr05749f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Continuous flow hydrothermal synthesis offers a cheap, green and highly scalable route for the preparation of inorganic nanomaterials which has predominantly been applied to metal oxide based materials. In this work we report the first continuous flow hydrothermal synthesis of metal sulphide nanomaterials. A wide range of binary metal sulphides, ZnS, CdS, PbS, CuS, Fe(1-x)S and Bi2S3, have been synthesised. By varying the reaction conditions two different mechanisms may be invoked; a growth dominated route which permits the formation of nanostructured sulphide materials, and a nucleation driven process which produces nanoparticles with temperature dependent size control. This offers a new and industrially viable route to a wide range of metal sulphide nanoparticles with facile size and shape control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter W Dunne
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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Sugioka KI, Ozawa K, Tsukada T, Takami S, Adschiri T, Sugimoto K, Takenaka N, Saito Y. Neutron radiography and numerical simulation of mixing behavior in a reactor for supercritical hydrothermal synthesis. AIChE J 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.14313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ken-ichi Sugioka
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering; Tohoku University; 6-6-07 Aramaki Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Kyohei Ozawa
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering; Tohoku University; 6-6-07 Aramaki Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Takao Tsukada
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering; Tohoku University; 6-6-07 Aramaki Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8579 Japan
| | - Seiichi Takami
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials; Tohoku University; 2-1-1 Katahira Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8577 Japan
| | - Tadafumi Adschiri
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials; Tohoku University; 2-1-1 Katahira Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8577 Japan
- WPI Advanced Institute for Materials Research; Tohoku University; 2-1-1 Katahira Aoba-ku Sendai 980-8577 Japan
| | - Katsumi Sugimoto
- Dept. of Mechanical Engineering; Kobe University; 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada Kobe 657-8501 Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Takenaka
- Dept. of Mechanical Engineering; Kobe University; 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada Kobe 657-8501 Japan
| | - Yasushi Saito
- Research Reactor Institute; Kyoto University; 2 Asashiro-Nishi, Kumatori-cho Sennan-gun Osaka 590-0494 Japan
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Gong Y, Li C, Huang X, Luo Y, Li D, Meng Q, Iversen BB. Simple method for manufacturing Pt counter electrodes on conductive plastic substrates for dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:795-800. [PMID: 23298312 DOI: 10.1021/am302360g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A novel, facile, and low-cost method was developed for manufacturing Pt counter electrodes (CEs) of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) on the indium tin oxide-coated polyethylene terephthalate (ITO-PET). This press-transferring method reconciled the temperature conflict between the sintering process of thermal decomposition of H(2)PtCl(6) and plastic substrates. Cyclic voltammograms, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, transmittance spectra and photovoltaic performance were characterized to investigate the transferred Pt CEs. It was found that the transferred Pt CEs on ITO-PET exhibited an excellent catalytic activity comparable with traditional electrodes on FTO glasses. On the front-side, an illuminated conversion efficiency of 7.21% was reached with more than 94% efficiency of conventional thermally deposited Pt CEs on FTO glasses, and on the back-side, the illuminated conversion efficiency was 4.86%, which was higher than that for conventional electrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Gong
- Key Laboratory for Renewable Energy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory for New Energy Materials and Devices, Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics, Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, PR China
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Lock N, Jensen EML, Mi J, Mamakhel A, Norén K, Qingbo M, Iversen BB. Copper doped TiO2 nanoparticles characterized by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, total scattering, and powder diffraction – a benchmark structure–property study. Dalton Trans 2013; 42:9555-64. [DOI: 10.1039/c3dt00122a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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12
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Li C, Luo Y, Guo X, Li D, Mi J, Sø L, Hald P, Meng Q, Iversen BB. Mesoporous TiO2 aggregate photoanode with high specific surface area and strong light scattering for dye-sensitized solar cells. J SOLID STATE CHEM 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jssc.2012.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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13
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Neutron radiography on tubular flow reactor for hydrothermal synthesis: In situ monitoring of mixing behavior of supercritical water and room-temperature water. J Supercrit Fluids 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2011.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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14
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Tighe CJ, Gruar RI, Ma CY, Mahmud T, Wang XZ, Darr JA. Investigation of counter-current mixing in a continuous hydrothermal flow reactor. J Supercrit Fluids 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2011.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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