1
|
Stano P, Nehaniv C, Ikegami T, Damiano L, Witkowski O. Autopoiesis: Foundations of life, cognition, and emergence of self/other. Biosystems 2023; 232:105008. [PMID: 37619925 DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2023.105008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Stano
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies (DiSTeBA), University of Salento, Lecce, Italy.
| | - Chrystopher Nehaniv
- Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada.
| | - Takashi Ikegami
- The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Luisa Damiano
- Research Group on the Epistemology of the Sciences of the Artificial, Department of Communication, Arts and Media, IULM University, Milan, Italy.
| | - Olaf Witkowski
- Cross Labs, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lauber N, Flamm C, Ruiz-Mirazo K. "Minimal metabolism": A key concept to investigate the origins and nature of biological systems. Bioessays 2021; 43:e2100103. [PMID: 34426986 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202100103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The systems view on life and its emergence from complex chemistry has remarkably increased the scientific attention on metabolism in the last two decades. However, during this time there has not been much theoretical discussion on what constitutes a metabolism and what role it actually played in biogenesis. A critical and updated review on the topic is here offered, including some references to classical models from last century, but focusing more on current and future research. Metabolism is considered as intrinsically related to the living but not necessarily equivalent to it. More precisely, the idea of "minimal metabolism", in contrast to previous, top-down conceptions, is formulated as a heuristic construct, halfway between chemistry and biology. Thus, rather than providing a complete or final characterization of metabolism, our aim is to encourage further investigations on it, particularly in the context of life's origin, for which some concrete methodological suggestions are provided. Also see the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/DP7VMKk2qpA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nino Lauber
- Biofisika Institute (CSIC, UPV/EHU), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain.,Department of Philosophy, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
| | - Christoph Flamm
- Institute for Theoretical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo
- Biofisika Institute (CSIC, UPV/EHU), University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain.,Department of Philosophy, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
The detection of ethanolamine (NH2CH2CH2OH) in a molecular cloud in the interstellar medium confirms that a precursor of phospholipids is efficiently formed by interstellar chemistry. Hence, ethanolamine could have been transferred from the proto-Solar nebula to planetesimals and minor bodies of the Solar System and thereafter to our planet. The prebiotic availability of ethanolamine on early Earth could have triggered the formation of efficient and permeable amphiphilic molecules such as phospholipids, thus playing a relevant role in the evolution of the first cellular membranes needed for the emergence of life. Cell membranes are a key element of life because they keep the genetic material and metabolic machinery together. All present cell membranes are made of phospholipids, yet the nature of the first membranes and the origin of phospholipids are still under debate. We report here the presence of ethanolamine in space, NH2CH2CH2OH, which forms the hydrophilic head of the simplest and second-most-abundant phospholipid in membranes. The molecular column density of ethanolamine in interstellar space is N = (1.51± 0.07)× 1013 cm−2, implying a molecular abundance with respect to H2 of (0.9−1.4) × 10−10. Previous studies reported its presence in meteoritic material, but they suggested that it is synthesized in the meteorite itself by decomposition of amino acids. However, we find that the proportion of the molecule with respect to water in the interstellar medium is similar to the one found in the meteorite (10−6). These results indicate that ethanolamine forms efficiently in space and, if delivered onto early Earth, could have contributed to the assembling and early evolution of primitive membranes.
Collapse
|
4
|
Boojari MA. Investigating the Evolution and Development of Biological Systems from the Perspective of Thermo-Kinetics and Systems Theory. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2020; 50:121-143. [PMID: 33269436 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-020-09601-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Life itself is grander than the sum of its constituent molecules. Any living organism may be regarded as a part of a dissipative process that connects irreversible energy consumption with growth, reproduction, and evolution. Under energy-fuelled, far-from-equilibrium conditions, chemical systems capable of exponential growth can manifest a specific form of stability- dynamic kinetic stability (DKS) - indicating the persistence of self-reproducible entities. This kinetic behavior is associated with thermodynamic conditions far from equilibrium leading to an evolutionary view of the origin of life in which increasing entities have to be associated with the dissipation of free energy. This review aims to reformulate Darwinian theory in physicochemical terms so that it can handle both animate and inanimate systems, thus helping to overcome this theoretical divide. The expanded formulation is based on the principle of dynamic kinetic stability and evidence from the emerging field of systems chemistry. Although the classic Darwinian theory is useful for understanding the origins and evolution of species, it is not meant to primarily build an explicit framework for predicting potential evolution routes. Throughout the last century, the inherently systemic and dynamic nature of the biological systems has been brought to the attention of researchers. During the last decades, "systems" approaches to biology and genome evolution are gaining ever greater significance providing the possibility of a deeper interpretation of the basic concepts of life. Further progress of this approach depends on crossing disciplinary boundaries and complex simulations of biological systems. Evolutionary systems biology (ESB) through the integration of methods from evolutionary biology and systems biology aims to the understanding of the fundamental principles of life as well as the prediction of biological systems evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Amin Boojari
- Space Biology and Astrobiology Research Team (SBART), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fairén AG, Gómez-Elvira J, Briones C, Prieto-Ballesteros O, Rodríguez-Manfredi JA, López Heredero R, Belenguer T, Moral AG, Moreno-Paz M, Parro V. The Complex Molecules Detector (CMOLD): A Fluidic-Based Instrument Suite to Search for (Bio)chemical Complexity on Mars and Icy Moons. ASTROBIOLOGY 2020; 20:1076-1096. [PMID: 32856927 PMCID: PMC7116096 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2019.2167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Organic chemistry is ubiquitous in the Solar System, and both Mars and a number of icy satellites of the outer Solar System show substantial promise for having hosted or hosting life. Here, we propose a novel astrobiologically focused instrument suite that could be included as scientific payload in future missions to Mars or the icy moons: the Complex Molecules Detector, or CMOLD. CMOLD is devoted to determining different levels of prebiotic/biotic chemical and structural targets following a chemically general approach (i.e., valid for both terrestrial and nonterrestrial life), as well as their compatibility with terrestrial life. CMOLD is based on a microfluidic block that distributes a liquid suspension sample to three instruments by using complementary technologies: (1) novel microscopic techniques for identifying ultrastructures and cell-like morphologies, (2) Raman spectroscopy for detecting universal intramolecular complexity that leads to biochemical functionality, and (3) bioaffinity-based systems (including antibodies and aptamers as capture probes) for finding life-related and nonlife-related molecular structures. We highlight our current developments to make this type of instruments flight-ready for upcoming Mars missions: the Raman spectrometer included in the science payload of the ESAs Rosalind Franklin rover (Raman Laser Spectrometer instrument) to be launched in 2022, and the biomarker detector that was included as payload in the NASA Icebreaker lander mission proposal (SOLID instrument). CMOLD is a robust solution that builds on the combination of three complementary, existing techniques to cover a wide spectrum of targets in the search for (bio)chemical complexity in the Solar System.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alberto G. Fairén
- Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca New York, USA
| | - Javier Gómez-Elvira
- Payload & Space Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Raquel López Heredero
- Payload & Space Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Tomás Belenguer
- Payload & Space Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Andoni G. Moral
- Payload & Space Science Department, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Víctor Parro
- Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Robertson CC, Kosikova T, Philp D. Encoding Multiple Reactivity Modes within a Single Synthetic Replicator. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:11139-11152. [PMID: 32414236 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c03527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Establishing programmable and self-sustaining replication networks in pools of chemical reagents is a key challenge in systems chemistry. Self-replicating templates are formed from two constituent components with complementary recognition and reactive sites via a slow bimolecular pathway and a fast template-directed pathway. Here, we re-engineer one of the components of a synthetic replicator to encode an additional recognition function, permitting the assembly of a binary complex between the components that mediates replicator formation through a template-independent pathway, which achieves maximum rate acceleration at early time points in the replication process. The complementarity between recognition sites creates a key conformational equilibrium between the catalytically inert product, formed via the template-independent pathway, and the catalytically active replicator that mediates the template-directed pathway. Consequently, the rapid formation of the catalytically inert isomer kick-starts replication through the template-directed pathway. Through kinetic analyses, we demonstrate that the presence of the two recognition-mediated reactivity modes results in enhanced template formation in comparison to that of systems capable of exploiting only a single recognition-mediated pathway. Finally, kinetic simulations reveal that the conformational equilibrium and both the relative and absolute efficiencies of the recognition-mediated pathways affect the extent to which self-replicating systems can benefit from this additional template-independent reactivity mode. These results allow us to formulate the rules that govern the coupling of replication processes to alternative recognition-mediated reactivity modes. The interplay between template-directed and template-independent pathways for replicator formation has significant relevance to ongoing efforts to design programmable and adaptable replicator networks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig C Robertson
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom.,Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3113, United States
| | - Douglas Philp
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom.,Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208-3113, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
A new implication of quasispecies dynamics: Broad virus diversification in absence of external perturbations. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2020; 82:104278. [PMID: 32165244 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
RNA genetic elements include many important animal and plant pathogens. They share high mutability, a trait that has multiple implications for the interactions with their host organisms. Here we review evidence of a new adaptive feature of RNA viruses that we term "broadly diversifying selection". It constitutes a new type of positive selection without participation of any external selective agent, and which is built upon a progressive increase of the number of different genomes that dominate the population. The evidence was provided by analyses of mutant spectrum composition of two important viral pathogens, foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) after prolonged replication in their respective cell culture environment. Despite being fueled by mutations that arise randomly and in absence of an external guiding selective force, this type of selection prepares the viral population for a response to selective forces still to occur. Since current evidence suggests that broadly diversifying selection is favored by elevated mutation rates and population sizes, it may constitute a more general behavior, relevant also to the adaptive dynamics of microbial populations and cancer cells.
Collapse
|
8
|
Cornish-Bowden A, Cárdenas ML. Contrasting theories of life: Historical context, current theories. In search of an ideal theory. Biosystems 2020; 188:104063. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biosystems.2019.104063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
9
|
Morales-Reina S, Giri C, Leclercq M, Vela-Gallego S, de la Torre I, Castón JR, Surin M, de la Escosura A. Programmed Recognition between Complementary Dinucleolipids To Control the Self-Assembly of Lipidic Amphiphiles. Chemistry 2020; 26:1082-1090. [PMID: 31729787 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201904217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
One of the major goals in systems chemistry is to create molecular assemblies with emergent properties that are characteristic of life. An interesting approach toward this goal is based on merging different biological building blocks into synthetic systems with properties arising from the combination of their molecular components. The covalent linkage of nucleic acids (or their constituents: nucleotides, nucleosides and nucleobases) with lipids in the same hybrid molecule leads, for example, to the so-called nucleolipids. Herein, we describe nucleolipids with a very short sequence of two nucleobases per lipid, which, in combination with hydrophobic effects promoted by the lipophilic chain, allow control of the self-assembly of lipidic amphiphiles to be achieved. The present work describes a spectroscopic and microscopy study of the structural features and dynamic self-assembly of dinucleolipids that contain adenine or thymine moieties, either pure or in mixtures. This approach leads to different self-assembled nanostructures, which include spherical, rectangular and fibrillar assemblies, as a function of the sequence of nucleobases and chiral effects of the nucleolipids involved. We also show evidence that the resulting architectures can encapsulate hydrophobic molecules, revealing their potential as drug delivery vehicles or as compartments to host interesting chemistries in their interior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Morales-Reina
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Chandan Giri
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maxime Leclercq
- Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, Center for Innovation in Materials and Polymers, University of Mons-UMONS, 20 Place du Parc, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Sonia Vela-Gallego
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Isabel de la Torre
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - José R Castón
- Department of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mathieu Surin
- Laboratory for Chemistry of Novel Materials, Center for Innovation in Materials and Polymers, University of Mons-UMONS, 20 Place du Parc, 7000, Mons, Belgium
| | - Andrés de la Escosura
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Institute for Advanced Research in Chemistry (IAdChem), Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Mariscal C, Barahona A, Aubert-Kato N, Aydinoglu AU, Bartlett S, Cárdenas ML, Chandru K, Cleland C, Cocanougher BT, Comfort N, Cornish-Bowden A, Deacon T, Froese T, Giovannelli D, Hernlund J, Hut P, Kimura J, Maurel MC, Merino N, Moreno A, Nakagawa M, Peretó J, Virgo N, Witkowski O, James Cleaves H. Hidden Concepts in the History and Philosophy of Origins-of-Life Studies: a Workshop Report. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2019; 49:111-145. [PMID: 31399826 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-019-09580-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we describe some of the central philosophical issues facing origins-of-life research and provide a targeted history of the developments that have led to the multidisciplinary field of origins-of-life studies. We outline these issues and developments to guide researchers and students from all fields. With respect to philosophy, we provide brief summaries of debates with respect to (1) definitions (or theories) of life, what life is and how research should be conducted in the absence of an accepted theory of life, (2) the distinctions between synthetic, historical, and universal projects in origins-of-life studies, issues with strategies for inferring the origins of life, such as (3) the nature of the first living entities (the "bottom up" approach) and (4) how to infer the nature of the last universal common ancestor (the "top down" approach), and (5) the status of origins of life as a science. Each of these debates influences the others. Although there are clusters of researchers that agree on some answers to these issues, each of these debates is still open. With respect to history, we outline several independent paths that have led to some of the approaches now prevalent in origins-of-life studies. These include one path from early views of life through the scientific revolutions brought about by Linnaeus (von Linn.), Wöhler, Miller, and others. In this approach, new theories, tools, and evidence guide new thoughts about the nature of life and its origin. We also describe another family of paths motivated by a" circularity" approach to life, which is guided by such thinkers as Maturana & Varela, Gánti, Rosen, and others. These views echo ideas developed by Kant and Aristotle, though they do so using modern science in ways that produce exciting avenues of investigation. By exploring the history of these ideas, we can see how many of the issues that currently interest us have been guided by the contexts in which the ideas were developed. The disciplinary backgrounds of each of these scholars has influenced the questions they sought to answer, the experiments they envisioned, and the kinds of data they collected. We conclude by encouraging scientists and scholars in the humanities and social sciences to explore ways in which they can interact to provide a deeper understanding of the conceptual assumptions, structure, and history of origins-of-life research. This may be useful to help frame future research agendas and bring awareness to the multifaceted issues facing this challenging scientific question.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Mariscal
- Department of Philosophy, Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology (EECB) Program, and Integrative Neuroscience Program, University of Nevada, Reno (UNR), Reno, Nevada, USA
| | - Ana Barahona
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, School of Sciences, UNAM, 04510, CDMX, Coyoacán, Mexico
| | - Nathanael Aubert-Kato
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Department of Information Sciences, Ochanomizu University, Bunkyoku, Otsuka, 2-1-1, Tokyo, 112-0012, Japan
| | - Arsev Umur Aydinoglu
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Washington, DC, 20011, USA
- Science and Technology Policies Department, Middle East Technical University (METU), 06800, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Stuart Bartlett
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | | | - Kuhan Chandru
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Level 3, Research Complex, National University of Malaysia, 43600, UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague, Technicka 5, 16628, Prague, 6, Dejvice, Czech Republic
| | - Carol Cleland
- Department of Philosophy, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Benjamin T Cocanougher
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, Ashburn, VA, 20147, USA
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Nathaniel Comfort
- Department of the History of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Terrence Deacon
- Department of Anthropology & Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Tom Froese
- Institute for Applied Mathematics and Systems Research (IIMAS), National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
- Centre for the Sciences of Complexity (C3), National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Donato Giovannelli
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
- Department of Marine and Coastal Science, Rutgers University, 71 Dudley Rd, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
- YHouse, Inc., NY, 10159, New York, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Cinthia, 80156, Naples, Italy
| | - John Hernlund
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Piet Hut
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - Jun Kimura
- Department of Earth and Space Science, Osaka University, Machikaneyama-Chou 1-1, Toyonaka City, Osaka, 560-0043, Japan
| | | | - Nancy Merino
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, California, Los Angeles, 90089, USA
| | - Alvaro Moreno
- Department of Logic and Philosophy of Science, IAS-Research Centre for Life, Mind and Society, University of the Basque Country, Avenida de Tolosa 70, 20018, Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Mayuko Nakagawa
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
| | - Juli Peretó
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Valéncia and Institute for Integrative Systems Biology I2SysBio (University of Valéncia-CSIC), València, Spain
| | - Nathaniel Virgo
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- European Centre for Living Technology, Venice, Italy
| | - Olaf Witkowski
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan
- Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - H James Cleaves
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, 152-8551, Japan.
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Washington, DC, 20011, USA.
- Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA.
- European Centre for Living Technology, Venice, Italy.
- Center for Chemical Evolution, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Huck J, Kosikova T, Philp D. Compositional Persistence in a Multicyclic Network of Synthetic Replicators. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:13905-13913. [PMID: 31403776 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b06697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The emergence of collections of simple chemical entities that create self-sustaining reaction networks, embedding replication and catalysis, is cited as a potential mechanism for the appearance on the early Earth of systems that satisfy minimal definitions of life. In this work, a functional reaction network that creates and maintains a set of privileged replicator structures through auto- and cross-catalyzed reaction cycles is created from the pairwise combinations of four reagents. We show that the addition of individual preformed templates to this network, representing instructions to synthesize a specific replicator, induces changes in the output composition of the system that represent a network-level response. Further, we establish through sets of serial transfer experiments that the catalytic connections that exist between the four replicators in this network and the system-level behavior thereby encoded impose limits on the compositional variability that can be induced by repeated exposure to instructional inputs, in the form of preformed templates, to the system. The origin of this persistence is traced through kinetic simulations to the properties and inter-relationships between the critical ternary complexes formed by the auto- and crosscatalytic templates. These results demonstrate that in an environment where there is no continuous selection pressure the network connectivity, described by the catalytic relationships and system-level interactions between the replicators, is persistent, thereby limiting the ability of this network to adapt and evolve.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Huck
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM , University of St Andrews , North Haugh , St Andrews , Fife KY16 9ST , U.K
| | - Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM , University of St Andrews , North Haugh , St Andrews , Fife KY16 9ST , U.K
| | - Douglas Philp
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM , University of St Andrews , North Haugh , St Andrews , Fife KY16 9ST , U.K
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
de la Escosura A. The Informational Substrate of Chemical Evolution: Implications for Abiogenesis. Life (Basel) 2019; 9:life9030066. [PMID: 31398942 PMCID: PMC6789672 DOI: 10.3390/life9030066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A key aspect of biological evolution is the capacity of living systems to process information, coded in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and used to direct how the cell works. The overall picture that emerges today from fields such as developmental, synthetic, and systems biology indicates that information processing in cells occurs through a hierarchy of genes regulating the activity of other genes through complex metabolic networks. There is an implicit semiotic character in this way of dealing with information, based on functional molecules that act as signs to achieve self-regulation of the whole network. In contrast to cells, chemical systems are not thought of being able to process information, yet they must have preceded biological organisms, and evolved into them. Hence, there must have been prebiotic molecular assemblies that could somehow process information, in order to regulate their own constituent reactions and supramolecular organization processes. The purpose of this essay is then to reflect about the distinctive features of information in living and non-living matter, and on how the capacity of biological organisms for information processing was possibly rooted in a particular type of chemical systems (here referred to as autonomous chemical systems), which could self-sustain and reproduce through organizational closure of their molecular building blocks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés de la Escosura
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma of Madrid, Cantoblanco Campus, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Research in Chemistry (IAdChem), Cantoblanco Campus, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Runnels CM, Lanier KA, Williams JK, Bowman JC, Petrov AS, Hud NV, Williams LD. Folding, Assembly, and Persistence: The Essential Nature and Origins of Biopolymers. J Mol Evol 2018; 86:598-610. [PMID: 30456440 PMCID: PMC6267704 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-018-9876-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Life as we know it requires three basic types of polymers: polypeptide, polynucleotide, and polysaccharide. Here we evaluate both universal and idiosyncratic characteristics of these biopolymers. We incorporate this information into a model that explains much about their origins, selection, and early evolution. We observe that all three biopolymer types are pre-organized, conditionally self-complementary, chemically unstable in aqueous media yet persistent because of kinetic trapping, with chiral monomers and directional chains. All three biopolymers are synthesized by dehydration reactions that are catalyzed by molecular motors driven by hydrolysis of phosphorylated nucleosides. All three biopolymers can access specific states that protect against hydrolysis. These protected states are folded, using self-complementary interactions among recurrent folding elements within a given biopolymer, or assembled, in associations between the same or different biopolymer types. Self-association in a hydrolytic environment achieves self-preservation. Heterogeneous association achieves partner-preservation. These universal properties support a model in which life's polymers emerged simultaneously and co-evolved in a common hydrolytic milieu where molecular persistence depended on folding and assembly. We believe that an understanding of the structure, function, and origins of any given type of biopolymer requires the context of other biopolymers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Calvin M Runnels
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Kathryn A Lanier
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Justin Krish Williams
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Jessica C Bowman
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Anton S Petrov
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Nicholas V Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Loren Dean Williams
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Serrano-Luginbühl S, Ruiz-Mirazo K, Ostaszewski R, Gallou F, Walde P. Soft and dispersed interface-rich aqueous systems that promote and guide chemical reactions. Nat Rev Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1038/s41570-018-0042-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
15
|
Robertson CC, Mackenzie HW, Kosikova T, Philp D. An Environmentally Responsive Reciprocal Replicating Network. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:6832-6841. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b13576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Craig C. Robertson
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Harold W. Mackenzie
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas Philp
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Lafuente M, Solà J, Alfonso I. A Dynamic Chemical Network for Cystinuria Diagnosis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201802189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Lafuente
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Jordi Solà
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Ignacio Alfonso
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Lafuente M, Solà J, Alfonso I. A Dynamic Chemical Network for Cystinuria Diagnosis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:8421-8424. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201802189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Lafuente
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Jordi Solà
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| | - Ignacio Alfonso
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modeling IQAC-CSIC Jordi Girona 18–26 08034 Barcelona Spain
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Leyva Y, Martín O, García-Jacas CR. Constraining the Prebiotic Cell Size Limits in Extremely Hostile Environments: A Dynamical Perspective. ASTROBIOLOGY 2018; 18:403-411. [PMID: 29672138 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2017.1696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The ability to support a replicator population in an extremely hostile environment is considered in a simple model of a prebiotic cell. We explore from a classical approach how the replicator viability changes as a function of the cell radius. The model includes the interaction between two different species: a substrate that flows from the exterior and a replicator that feeds on the substrate and is readily destroyed in the environment outside the cell. According to our results, replicators in the cell only exist when the radius exceeds some critical value [Formula: see text] being, in general, a function of the substrate concentration, the diffusion constant of the replicator species, and the reproduction rate coefficient. Additionally, the influence of other parameters on the replicator population is also considered. The viability of chemical replicators under such drastic conditions could be crucial in understanding the origin of the first primitive cells and the ulterior development of life on our planet. Key Words: Prebiotic cell-Chemical replicator-Environment-Reproduction rate. Astrobiology 18, 403-411.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoelsy Leyva
- 1 Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Tarapacá , Arica, Chile
| | - Osmel Martín
- 2 Laboratorio de Ciencia Planetaria, Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de las Villas , Santa Clara, Cuba
| | - César R García-Jacas
- 3 Escuela de Sistemas y Computación, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Sede Esmeraldas (PUCESE) , Esmeraldas, Ecuador
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Kosikova T, Philp D. Exploring the emergence of complexity using synthetic replicators. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 46:7274-7305. [PMID: 29099123 DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00123a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A significant number of synthetic systems capable of replicating themselves or entities that are complementary to themselves have appeared in the last 30 years. Building on an understanding of the operation of synthetic replicators in isolation, this field has progressed to examples where catalytic relationships between replicators within the same network and the extant reaction conditions play a role in driving phenomena at the level of the whole system. Systems chemistry has played a pivotal role in the attempts to understand the origin of biological complexity by exploiting the power of synthetic chemistry, in conjunction with the molecular recognition toolkit pioneered by the field of supramolecular chemistry, thereby permitting the bottom-up engineering of increasingly complex reaction networks from simple building blocks. This review describes the advances facilitated by the systems chemistry approach in relating the expression of complex and emergent behaviour in networks of replicators with the connectivity and catalytic relationships inherent within them. These systems, examined within well-stirred batch reactors, represent conceptual and practical frameworks that can then be translated to conditions that permit replicating systems to overcome the fundamental limits imposed on selection processes in networks operating under closed conditions. This shift away from traditional spatially homogeneous reactors towards dynamic and non-equilibrium conditions, such as those provided by reaction-diffusion reaction formats, constitutes a key change that mimics environments within cellular systems, which possess obvious compartmentalisation and inhomogeneity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Ruiz-Mirazo K, Briones C, de la Escosura A. Chemical roots of biological evolution: the origins of life as a process of development of autonomous functional systems. Open Biol 2018; 7:rsob.170050. [PMID: 28446711 PMCID: PMC5413913 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.170050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, an extension of the Darwinian framework is being considered for the study of prebiotic chemical evolution, shifting the attention from homogeneous populations of naked molecular species to populations of heterogeneous, compartmentalized and functionally integrated assemblies of molecules. Several implications of this shift of perspective are analysed in this critical review, both in terms of the individual units, which require an adequate characterization as self-maintaining systems with an internal organization, and also in relation to their collective and long-term evolutionary dynamics, based on competition, collaboration and selection processes among those complex individuals. On these lines, a concrete proposal for the set of molecular control mechanisms that must be coupled to bring about autonomous functional systems, at the interface between chemistry and biology, is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo
- Biofisika Institute (CSIC, UPV/EHU), 48940 Leioa, Spain.,Department of Logic and Philosophy of Science, University of the Basque Country, 20018 Donostia - San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Carlos Briones
- Department of Molecular Evolution, Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA, Associated to NASA Astrobiology Institute), 28850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés de la Escosura
- Organic Chemistry Department, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain .,Institute for Advanced Research in Chemical Sciences (IAdChem), 28049 Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Sadownik JW, Kosikova T, Philp D. Generating System-Level Responses from a Network of Simple Synthetic Replicators. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:17565-17573. [PMID: 29087701 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b09735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The creation of reaction networks capable of exhibiting responses that are properties of entire systems represents a significant challenge for the chemical sciences. The system-level behavior of a reaction network is linked intrinsically to its topology and the functional connections between its nodes. A simple network of chemical reactions constructed from four reagents, in which each reagent reacts with exactly two others, can exhibit up-regulation of two products even when only a single chemical reaction is addressed catalytically. We implement a system with this topology using two maleimides and two nitrones of different sizes-either short or long and each bearing complementary recognition sites-that react pairwise through 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions to create a network of four length-segregated replicating templates. Comprehensive 1H NMR spectroscopy experiments unravel the network topology, confirming that, in isolation, three out of four templates self-replicate, with the shortest template exhibiting the highest efficiency. The strongest template effects within the network are the mutually cross-catalytic relationships between the two templates of intermediate size. The network topology is such that the addition of different preformed templates as instructions to a mixture of all starting materials elicits system-level behavior. Instruction with a single template up-regulates the formation of two templates in a predictable manner. These results demonstrate that the rules governing system-level behavior can be unraveled through the application of wholly synthetic networks with well-defined chemistries and interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan W Sadownik
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews , North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews , North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas Philp
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews , North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Kosikova T, Philp D. A Critical Cross-Catalytic Relationship Determines the Outcome of Competition in a Replicator Network. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:12579-12590. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b06270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Kosikova
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| | - Douglas Philp
- School of Chemistry and EaStCHEM, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9ST, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Larsen D, Jeppesen A, Kleinlein C, Pittelkow M. Thiosemicarbazone Dynamic Combinatorial Chemistry: Equilibrator-Induced Dynamic State, Formation of Complex Libraries, and a Supramolecular On/Off Switch. J Org Chem 2017; 82:8580-8589. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b01161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Larsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne Jeppesen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Claudia Kleinlein
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michael Pittelkow
- Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Shirt-Ediss B, Murillo-Sánchez S, Ruiz-Mirazo K. Framing major prebiotic transitions as stages of protocell development: three challenges for origins-of-life research. Beilstein J Org Chem 2017; 13:1388-1395. [PMID: 28781704 PMCID: PMC5530630 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.13.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Conceiving the process of biogenesis as the evolutionary development of highly dynamic and integrated protocell populations provides the most appropriate framework to address the difficult problem of how prebiotic chemistry bridged the gap to full-fledged living organisms on the early Earth. In this contribution we briefly discuss the implications of taking dynamic, functionally integrated protocell systems (rather than complex reaction networks in bulk solution, sets of artificially evolvable replicating molecules, or even these same replicating molecules encapsulated in passive compartments) as the proper units of prebiotic evolution. We highlight, in particular, how the organisational features of those chemically active and reactive protocells, at different stages of the process, would strongly influence their corresponding evolutionary capacities. As a result of our analysis, we suggest three experimental challenges aimed at constructing protocell systems made of a diversity of functionally coupled components and, thereby, at characterizing more precisely the type of prebiotic evolutionary dynamics that such protocells could engage in.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ben Shirt-Ediss
- Interdisciplinary Computing and Complex BioSystems Group, University of Newcastle, UK
| | - Sara Murillo-Sánchez
- Dept. Logic and Philosophy of Science, University of the Basque Country, Spain.,Biofisika Institute (CSIC, UPV-EHU), Spain
| | - Kepa Ruiz-Mirazo
- Dept. Logic and Philosophy of Science, University of the Basque Country, Spain.,Biofisika Institute (CSIC, UPV-EHU), Spain
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Permeability-driven selection in a semi-empirical protocell model: the roots of prebiotic systems evolution. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3141. [PMID: 28600550 PMCID: PMC5466667 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02799-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin-of-life problem has been traditionally conceived as the chemical challenge to find the type of molecule and free-solution reaction dynamics that could have started Darwinian evolution. Different autocatalytic and ‘self-replicative’ molecular species have been extensively investigated, together with plausible synthetic pathways that might have led, abiotically, to such a minimalist scenario. However, in addition to molecular kinetics or molecular evolutionary dynamics, other physical and chemical constraints (like compartmentalization, differential diffusion, selective transport, osmotic forces, energetic couplings) could have been crucial for the cohesion, functional integration, and intrinsic stability/robustness of intermediate systems between chemistry and biology. These less acknowledged mechanisms of interaction and molecular control might have made the initial pathways to prebiotic systems evolution more intricate, but were surely essential for sustaining far-from-equilibrium chemical dynamics, given their functional relevance in all modern cells. Here we explore a protocellular scenario in which some of those additional constraints/mechanisms are addressed, demonstrating their ‘system-level’ implications. In particular, an experimental study on the permeability of prebiotic vesicle membranes composed of binary lipid mixtures allows us to construct a semi-empirical model where protocells are able to reproduce and undergo an evolutionary process based on their coupling with an internal chemistry that supports lipid synthesis.
Collapse
|
26
|
From Systems to Organisations. SYSTEMS 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/systems5010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
27
|
Gil R, Peretó J. Small genomes and the difficulty to define minimal translation and metabolic machineries. Front Ecol Evol 2015. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2015.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|