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Chandra RK, Bhardwaj AK, Pati AK, Tripathi MK. Seasonal Immune Rhythms of head kidney and spleen cells in the freshwater Teleost, Channa punctatus. FISH AND SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY REPORTS 2023; 5:100110. [PMID: 37456710 PMCID: PMC10344798 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsirep.2023.100110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Annual rhythms in immune function are the reflection of a crucial physiological strategy to deal with environmental stressors. The fish are pivotal animal models to study the annual rhythm and to understand the evolution of the vertebrate biological system. The current research was planned to assess the annual changes in the innate immune functions of immune cells in a teleost, Channa punctatus. Head kidney and splenic macrophage phagocytosis, superoxide generation, and nitrite release were evaluated to assess innate immunity. Cell-mediated immunity was measured through head kidney and splenic lymphocyte proliferation in presence of mitogens. The superoxide anion generation by the cells of head kidney and spleen was maximum in October. A bimodal pattern in nitrite production was observed with the first peak in November and the second in March. Cosinor analysis revealed a statistically significant annual rhythm in nitrite production. Similarly, phagocytosis and lymphocyte proliferation also showed statistically significant annual rhythms. It was concluded that animals maintain an optimum immune response in seasonally changing environments. Elevated immunity during certain times of the year might assist animals deal with seasonal environmental stressors. Further research may be focused upon measuring survival rate and reproductive success after season induced elevated immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakesh Kumar Chandra
- Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Ajay Kumar Bhardwaj
- Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Atanu Kumar Pati
- Executive Member, Odisha State Higher Education Council, Government of Odisha, Bhubaneswar 751 002, Odisha, India
- Former Professor of Bioscience and Dean - Life Sciences, School of Studies in Life Science, Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur 492010, Chhattisgarh, India
| | - Manish Kumar Tripathi
- Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India
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2
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Assis VR, Titon SCM, Voyles J. Ecoimmunology: What Unconventional Organisms Tell Us after Two Decades. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac148. [PMID: 36250609 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Vania R Assis
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo SP 05508-090, Brasil
| | - Stefanny C M Titon
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo SP 05508-090, Brasil
| | - Jamie Voyles
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA
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Titon SCM, Assis VR. Introduction to the special issue: Ecoimmunology in ectotherms. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2021; 333:697-705. [PMID: 33450144 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanny C M Titon
- Laboratório de Comportamento e Fisiologia Evolutiva, Rua do Matão, Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Vania R Assis
- Laboratório de Comportamento e Fisiologia Evolutiva, Rua do Matão, Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Lima AS, Ferreira LDF, Silva DP, Gomes FR, Titon SCM. Thermal sensitivity of Bullfrog's immune response kept at different temperatures. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2020; 333:767-778. [PMID: 33369285 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Climate change and emerging infectious diseases are often described as the main factors associated with the worldwide amphibian population decline. In this context, rising temperatures due to global warming might act as a chronic stressor for many amphibians, leading to immunosuppression. This study aimed to characterize the thermal sensitivity of the Bullfrog's (Lithobates catesbeianus) immune response and the effect of acclimation at different temperatures on it. Plasma bacterial killing ability (BKA) and phagocytosis activity of blood leukocytes were measured at different incubation temperatures (5-40°C) in individuals kept at 28°C and 34°C. First, all individuals were held under 28°C and sampled on the 16th day. Subsequently, one group was kept at 28°, and the other one was transferred to 34°C. Both groups were sampled at 83 and 106 days of maintenance. Plasma corticosterone (CORT) and testosterone (T) were assessed to evidence thermal stress and possible endocrine correlates of immune changes over time. The incubation temperature affected BKA both on animals kept at 28°C and 34°C, with maximum values at lower temperatures (5-20°C). Phagocytosis activity was constant over the range of assay temperatures. Immune and endocrine variables decreased over time in both thermal regimes, but frogs maintained at 34°C showed lower T and immunosuppression, evidencing stress response. Therefore, exposure to high temperatures might decrease immune function in bullfrogs due to chronic stress response and by exposition to temperatures of lower performance according to the thermal sensitivity curve, which might increase vulnerability to diseases in this anuran species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan S Lima
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Letícia de F Ferreira
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Diego P Silva
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernando R Gomes
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Stefanny C M Titon
- Departamento de Fisiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Nakajima A, Okada M, Ishihara A, Yamauchi K. Modulation of plasma protein expression in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles during seasonal acclimatization and thermal acclimation. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 290:113396. [PMID: 31987871 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Biological activities in ectothermic vertebrates depend to a great extent on ambient temperature. Adapting their biological systems to annual or short-term alterations in temperature may play an important role in thermal resistance or overwintering survival. Using SDS-PAGE and western blot, we examined plasma proteins in bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) tadpoles that were seasonally acclimatized (winter vs. summer) or thermally acclimated (4 °C vs. 21 °C) and identified two season-responsive proteins. The first, transthyretin (TTR), is a plasma thyroid hormone distributor protein that was abundant in summer, and the second is a protein containing C-type lectin-like domain (CTLD) that was abundant in winter and cold acclimation of 4 weeks. Sequence analysis revealed that the C-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain of this CTLD protein (termed collectin X) was highly similar to those of the collectin family members, which participate in complement activation of the innate immune system; however, it lacked most of collagen-like domain. Among the hepatic genes involved in the thyroid system, ttr and dio3 were up-regulated, whereas thra and thrb were down-regulated, in summer acclimatization or warm acclimation. In contrast, the collectin X gene (colectx), as well as colect10 and colect11 in the collectin family involved in the innate immune system, were down-regulated during warm acclimation, although fcn2 in the ficolin family was up-regulated during summer acclimatization and warm acclimation. These findings indicate that seasonal acclimatization and thermal acclimation differentially affect some components of the thyroid and innate immune systems at protein and transcript levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ami Nakajima
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
| | - Masako Okada
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
| | - Akinori Ishihara
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
| | - Kiyoshi Yamauchi
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
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Filipe JF, Herrera V, Curone G, Vigo D, Riva F. Floods, Hurricanes, and Other Catastrophes: A Challenge for the Immune System of Livestock and Other Animals. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:16. [PMID: 32083100 PMCID: PMC7004950 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change involves different dramatic phenomena including desertification and wildfires, severe storms such as hurricanes and blizzards, increased sea levels resulting in flooding coastal cities and rise of atmospheric CO2 concentration. The alteration of the climate in a specific region affects the life of indigenous animals and humans. The climate changes influence living beings both directly and indirectly. The immune system of animals dramatically suffers the climate instability, making animals more susceptible to infectious and not infectious diseases. Different species of livestock animals respond with similar mechanisms to global warming, but some of them are more susceptible depending on their age, metabolism, and genetic conditions. The selection and study of autochthonous species and breeds, more easily adapted to specific environmental conditions could be an interesting strategy to face livestock rearing in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel F Filipe
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Herrera
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulio Curone
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Vigo
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Riva
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Thermal sensitivity of innate immune response in three species of Rhinella toads. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2019; 237:110542. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.110542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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8
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Xu DL, Xu MM, Wang DH. Effects of air temperatures on antioxidant defense and immunity in Mongolian gerbils. J Therm Biol 2019; 84:111-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2019.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Xu DL, Xu MM, Wang DH. Effect of temperature on antioxidant defense and innate immunity in Brandt's voles. Zool Res 2019; 40:305-316. [PMID: 31310064 PMCID: PMC6680122 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2019.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Ambient temperature is an important factor influencing many physiological processes, including antioxidant defense and immunity. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that antioxidant defense and immunity are suppressed by high and low temperature treatment in Brandt's voles (Lasiopodomys brandtii). Thirty male voles were randomly assigned into different temperature groups (4, 23, and 32 °C, n=10 for each group), with the treatment course lasting for 27 d. Results showed that low temperature increased gross energy intake (GEI) and liver, heart, and kidney mass, but decreased body fat mass and dry carcass mass. With the decline in temperature, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration, which is indicative of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, increased in the liver, decreased in the heart, and was unchanged in the kidney, testis, and small intestine. Lipid peroxidation indicated by malonaldehyde (MDA) content in the liver, heart, kidney, testis, and small intestine did not differ among groups, implying that high and low temperature did not cause oxidative damage. Similarly, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in the five tissues did not respond to low or high temperature, except for elevation of CAT activity in the testis upon cold exposure. Bacteria killing capacity, which is indicative of innate immunity, was nearly suppressed in the 4 °C group in contrast to the 23 °C group, whereas spleen mass and white blood cells were unaffected by temperature treatment. The levels of testosterone, but not corticosterone, were influenced by temperature treatment, though neither were correlated with innate immunity, H2O2 and MDA levels, or SOD, CAT, and T-AOC activity in any detected tissues. Overall, these results showed that temperature had different influences on oxidative stress, antioxidant enzymes, and immunity, which depended on the tissues and parameters tested. Up-regulation or maintenance of antioxidant defense might be an important mechanism for voles to survive highly variable environmental temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- De-Li Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Qufu Normal University, Qufu Shandong 273165, China
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Meng-Meng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - De-Hua Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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10
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Ferguson LV, Kortet R, Sinclair BJ. Eco-immunology in the cold: the role of immunity in shaping the overwintering survival of ectotherms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 221:221/13/jeb163873. [PMID: 29967267 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.163873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The effect of temperature on physiology mediates many of the challenges that ectotherms face under climate change. Ectotherm immunity is thermally sensitive and, as such, environmental change is likely to have complex effects on survival, disease resistance and transmission. The effects of temperature on immunity will be particularly profound in winter because cold and overwintering are important triggers and regulators of ectotherm immune activity. Low temperatures can both suppress and activate immune responses independent of parasites, which suggests that temperature not only affects the rate of immune responses but also provides information that allows overwintering ectotherms to balance investment in immunity and other physiological processes that underlie winter survival. Changing winter temperatures are now shifting ectotherm immunity, as well as the demand for energy conservation and protection against parasites. Whether an ectotherm can survive the winter will thus depend on whether new immune phenotypes will shift to match the conditions of the new environment, or leave ectotherms vulnerable to infection or energy depletion. Here, we synthesise patterns of overwintering immunity in ectotherms and examine how new winter conditions might affect ectotherm immunity. We then explore whether it is possible to predict the effects of changing winter conditions on ectotherm vulnerability to the direct and indirect effects of parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura V Ferguson
- Department of Biology, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS, Canada B4P 2R6
| | - Raine Kortet
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Brent J Sinclair
- Department of Biology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada N6A 5B7
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Transcriptomic analysis of changes in gene expression of immune proteins of gill tissue in response to low environmental temperature in fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2018; 25:109-117. [PMID: 29414190 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2017.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the face of ongoing climate change, it is imperative to understand better the effects of temperature on immune function in freshwater teleosts. It is unclear whether previously observed changes were caused by temperature per se. We studied changes in the gill transcriptome of fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at low temperature to understand better the effects of temperature on immune function. De novo assembly of the transcriptome using Trinity software resulted in 73,378 assembled contigs. Annotation using the Trinotate package yielded 58,952 Blastx hits (accessions). Expression of 194 unique mRNA transcripts changed in gill tissue of fathead minnows acclimatized to 5° compared to controls at 22 °C. At 5 °C mRNAs coding for proteins involved in innate immune responses were up-regulated. Those included proteins that block early-stage viral replication and macrophage activation. Expression of mRNAs coding for pro-inflammatory molecules and mucus secretion were also enhanced. Messenger RNAs coding for proteins associated with adaptive immune responses were down-regulated at 5 °C. Those included antigen-presenting proteins and proteins involved in immunoglobin production. Messenger RNAs coding for proteins that stimulate the cell cycle were also down-regulated at 5 °C. Histological comparison revealed that gills of cold acclimated fish had fewer mucus cells but cells contained larger mucus droplets. We conclude that decreased temperature modifies the immune systems of freshwater teleosts, leading to genome-wide upregulation of innate immunity and down regulation of adaptive immunity. Such acclimation likely evolved as an adaptive strategy against seasonal changes in infectious insults.
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Makrinos DL, Bowden TJ. Natural environmental impacts on teleost immune function. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 53:50-57. [PMID: 26973022 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2016.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The environment in which teleosts exist can experience considerable change. Short-term changes can occur in relation to tidal movements or adverse weather events. Long-term changes can be caused by anthropogenic impacts such as climate change, which can result in changes to temperature, acidity, salinity and oxygen capacity of aquatic environments. These changes can have important impacts on the physiology of an animal, including its immune system. This can have consequences on the well-being of the animal and its ability to protect against pathogens. This review will look at recent investigations of these types of environmental change on the immune response in teleosts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Timothy J Bowden
- School of Food & Agriculture, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
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Barber I, Berkhout BW, Ismail Z. Thermal Change and the Dynamics of Multi-Host Parasite Life Cycles in Aquatic Ecosystems. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:561-72. [PMID: 27252219 PMCID: PMC5035383 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Altered thermal regimes associated with climate change are impacting significantly on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the Earth's natural ecosystems, with important implications for the biology of aquatic organisms. As well as impacting the biology of individual species, changing thermal regimes have the capacity to mediate ecological interactions between species, and the potential for climate change to impact host-parasite interactions in aquatic ecosystems is now well recognized. Predicting what will happen to the prevalence and intensity of infection of parasites with multiple hosts in their life cycles is especially challenging because the addition of each additional host dramatically increases the potential permutations of response. In this short review, we provide an overview of the diverse routes by which altered thermal regimes can impact the dynamics of multi-host parasite life cycles in aquatic ecosystems. In addition, we examine how experimentally amenable host-parasite systems are being used to determine the consequences of changing environmental temperatures for these different types of mechanism. Our overarching aim is to examine the potential of changing thermal regimes to alter not only the biology of hosts and parasites, but also the biology of interactions between hosts and parasites. We also hope to illustrate the complexity that is likely to be involved in making predictions about the dynamics of infection by multi-host parasites in thermally challenged aquatic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain Barber
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Boris W Berkhout
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
| | - Zalina Ismail
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology & Behaviour, College of Medicine, Biological Sciences and Psychology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 7RH, UK
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Terblanche JS, Overgaard J. Introduction to the Special Issue "What sets the limit? How thermal limits, performance and preference in ectotherms are influenced by water or energy balance". J Therm Biol 2015; 54:1-2. [PMID: 26615719 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John S Terblanche
- Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.
| | - Johannes Overgaard
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Sharma N, Akhtar M, Pandey N, Singh R, Singh A. Seasonal variation in thermal tolerance, oxygen consumption, antioxidative enzymes and non-specific immune indices of Indian hill trout, Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton, 1807) from central Himalaya, India. J Therm Biol 2015; 52:166-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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