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Antony F, Kinha D, Nowińska A, Rouse BT, Suryawanshi A. The immunobiology of corneal HSV-1 infection and herpetic stromal keratitis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024:e0000624. [PMID: 39078136 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00006-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYHuman alphaherpesvirus 1 (HSV-1) is a highly successful neurotropic pathogen that primarily infects the epithelial cells lining the orofacial mucosa. After primary lytic replication in the oral, ocular, and nasal mucosal epithelial cells, HSV-1 establishes life-long latency in neurons within the trigeminal ganglion. Patients with compromised immune systems experience frequent reactivation of HSV-1 from latency, leading to virus entry in the sensory neurons, followed by anterograde transport and lytic replication at the innervated mucosal epithelial surface. Although recurrent infection of the corneal mucosal surface is rare, it can result in a chronic immuno-inflammatory condition called herpetic stromal keratitis (HSK). HSK leads to gradual vision loss and can cause permanent blindness in severe untreated cases. Currently, there is no cure or successful vaccine to prevent latent or recurrent HSV-1 infections, posing a significant clinical challenge to managing HSK and preventing vision loss. The conventional clinical management of HSK primarily relies on anti-virals to suppress HSV-1 replication, anti-inflammatory drugs (such as corticosteroids) to provide symptomatic relief from pain and inflammation, and surgical interventions in more severe cases to replace damaged cornea. However, each clinical treatment strategy has limitations, such as local and systemic drug toxicities and the emergence of anti-viral-resistant HSV-1 strains. In this review, we summarize the factors and immune cells involved in HSK pathogenesis and highlight alternate therapeutic strategies for successful clinical management of HSK. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of immunoregulatory cytokines and immunometabolism modulators as promising HSK therapies against emerging anti-viral-resistant HSV-1 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferrin Antony
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Divya Kinha
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Anna Nowińska
- Clinical Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
- Ophthalmology Department, Railway Hospital in Katowice, Katowice, Poland
| | - Barry T Rouse
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Amol Suryawanshi
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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Patil CD, Borase H, Gagan S, Sharma P, Kapoor D, Yadavalli T, Jain S, Joseph J, Bagga B, Shukla D. Rapid NETosis Is an Effector Mechanism to Combat Ocular Herpes Infection. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2024; 65:36. [PMID: 38916883 PMCID: PMC11210628 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.65.6.36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Neutrophils are known mediators of innate immunity, yet their effector function in herpesvirus infections remains poorly understood. Here, we elucidate the mechanistic action and pivotal role of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) during herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) ocular infection. Methods Neutrophils were collected from mice for HSV-1 infection, fluorescence imaging, and immunoblotting assay. Tear samples from healthy subjects and patients with HSV-1 and mice were collected at L. V. Prasad Eye Institute, India, and at the University of Illinois, USA, respectively. For the in vivo study, C57BL/6 mice as well as diversity outbred mice were infected with HSV-1 (McKrae strain) followed by tear fluid collection at various time points (0-10 days). Samples were used for Flow cytometry, ELISA, and immunofluorescence assay. Human transcriptomic profile of keratitis dataset was used evaluate NETosis signaling pathways. We also performed neutrophil depletion studies. Results Our data revealed a discernible temporal NET formation (NETosis) predominantly in the infected eye, across normal and diversity outbred murine models and human cases of HSV-1 infection. HSV-1 instigates swift NETosis governed by caspase-1 activation and myeloperoxidase secretion. Distinct accumulations of neutrophils, remaining unengaged in NET release in the contralateral eye post-infection, hinting at a proactive defensive posture in the uninfected eye. Moreover, neutrophil depletion accentuated ocular pathology, augmented viral load, and escalated disease scores, substantiating the protective effects of NETs in curtailing viral replication. Conclusions Our report uncovers a previously unexplored mechanism of NETosis through pro-inflammatory cell death in response to ocular HSV-1 infection, and HPSE up-regulation, identifying new avenues for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrashekhar D. Patil
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Hemant Borase
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | | | - Pankaj Sharma
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Divya Kapoor
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Tejabhiram Yadavalli
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Sandeep Jain
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Joveeta Joseph
- Jhaveri Microbiology Centre, Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, L. V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Bhupesh Bagga
- Shantilal Shanghvi Cornea Institute, The Ramoji Foundation Centre for Ocular Infections, L. V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States
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Musa M, Enaholo E, Aluyi-Osa G, Atuanya GN, Spadea L, Salati C, Zeppieri M. Herpes simplex keratitis: A brief clinical overview. World J Virol 2024; 13:89934. [PMID: 38616855 PMCID: PMC11008405 DOI: 10.5501/wjv.v13.i1.89934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of our minireview is to provide a brief overview of the diagnosis, clinical aspects, treatment options, management, and current literature available regarding herpes simplex keratitis (HSK). This type of corneal viral infection is caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV), which can affect several tissues, including the cornea. One significant aspect of HSK is its potential to cause recurrent episodes of inflammation and damage to the cornea. After the initial infection, the HSV can establish a latent infection in the trigeminal ganglion, a nerve cluster near the eye. The virus may remain dormant for extended periods. Periodic reactivation of the virus can occur, leading to recurrent episodes of HSK. Factors triggering reactivation include stress, illness, immunosuppression, or trauma. Recurrent episodes can manifest in different clinical patterns, ranging from mild epithelial involvement to more severe stromal or endothelial disease. The severity and frequency of recurrences vary among individuals. Severe cases of HSK, especially those involving the stroma and leading to scarring, can result in vision impairment or even blindness in extreme cases. The cornea's clarity is crucial for good vision, and scarring can compromise this, potentially leading to visual impairment. The management of HSK involves not only treating acute episodes but also implementing long-term strategies to prevent recurrences and attempt repairs of corneal nerve endings via neurotization. Antiviral medications, such as oral Acyclovir or topical Ganciclovir, may be prescribed for prophylaxis. The immune response to the virus can contribute to corneal damage. Inflammation, caused by the body's attempt to control the infection, may inadvertently harm the corneal tissues. Clinicians should be informed about triggers and advised on measures to minimize the risk of reactivation. In summary, the recurrent nature of HSK underscores the importance of both acute and long-term management strategies to preserve corneal health and maintain optimal visual function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mutali Musa
- Department of Optometry, University of Benin, Benin 300283, Nigeria
- Department of Ophthalmology, Africa Eye Laser Centre, Km 7, Benin 300105, Nigeria
| | - Ehimare Enaholo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Africa Eye Laser Centre, Km 7, Benin 300105, Nigeria
- Department of Ophthalmology, Centre for Sight Africa, Nkpor 434101, Nigeria
| | - Gladness Aluyi-Osa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Africa Eye Laser Centre, Km 7, Benin 300105, Nigeria
| | | | - Leopoldo Spadea
- Eye Clinic, Policlinico Umberto I, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome 00142, Italy
| | - Carlo Salati
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, Udine 33100, Italy
| | - Marco Zeppieri
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital of Udine, Udine 33100, Italy
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Luo G, Xu W, Chen X, Xu W, Yang S, Wang J, Lin Y, Reinach PS, Yan D. The RNA m5C Methylase NSUN2 Modulates Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:5. [PMID: 36862118 PMCID: PMC9983701 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.3.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose The emerging epitranscriptomics offers insights into the physiopathological roles of various RNA modifications. The RNA methylase NOP2/Sun domain family member 2 (NSUN2) catalyzes 5-methylcytosine (m5C) modification of mRNAs. However, the role of NSUN2 in corneal epithelial wound healing (CEWH) remains unknown. Here we describe the functional mechanisms of NSUN2 in mediating CEWH. Methods RT-qPCR, Western blot, dot blot, and ELISA were used to determine the NSUN2 expression and overall RNA m5C level during CEWH. NSUN2 silencing or overexpression was performed to explore its involvement in CEWH both in vivo and in vitro. Multi-omics was integrated to reveal the downstream target of NSUN2. MeRIP-qPCR, RIP-qPCR, and luciferase assay, as well as in vivo and in vitro functional assays, clarified the molecular mechanism of NSUN2 in CEWH. Results The NSUN2 expression and RNA m5C level increased significantly during CEWH. NSUN2 knockdown significantly delayed CEWH in vivo and inhibited human corneal epithelial cells (HCEC) proliferation and migration in vitro, whereas NSUN2 overexpression prominently enhanced HCEC proliferation and migration. Mechanistically, we found that NSUN2 increased ubiquitin-like containing PHD and RING finger domains 1 (UHRF1) translation through the binding of RNA m5C reader Aly/REF export factor. Accordingly, UHRF1 knockdown significantly delayed CEWH in vivo and inhibited HCEC proliferation and migration in vitro. Furthermore, UHRF1 overexpression effectively rescued the inhibitory effect of NSUN2 silencing on HCEC proliferation and migration. Conclusions NSUN2-mediated m5C modification of UHRF1 mRNA modulates CEWH. This finding highlights the critical importance of this novel epitranscriptomic mechanism in control of CEWH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangying Luo
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weiwei Xu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaoyan Chen
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wenji Xu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Shuai Yang
- Laboratory of RNA Epigenetics, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yong Lin
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Peter S. Reinach
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dongsheng Yan
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China,State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Dweikat SN, Renner DW, Bowen CD, Szpara ML. Multi-phenotype analysis for enhanced classification of 11 herpes simplex virus 1 strains. J Gen Virol 2022; 103:001780. [PMID: 36264606 PMCID: PMC10019087 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1) is best known for causing oral lesions and mild clinical symptoms, but it can produce a significant range of disease severities and rates of reactivation. To better understand this phenotypic variation, we characterized 11 HSV1 strains that were isolated from individuals with diverse infection outcomes. We provide new data on genomic and in vitro plaque phenotype analysis for these isolates and compare these data to previously reported quantitation of the disease phenotype of each strain in a murine animal model. We show that integration of these three types of data permitted clustering of these HSV1 strains into four groups that were not distinguishable by any single dataset alone, highlighting the benefits of combinatorial multi-parameter phenotyping. Two strains (group 1) produced a partially or largely syncytial plaque phenotype and attenuated disease phenotypes in mice. Three strains of intermediate plaque size, causing severe disease in mice, were genetically clustered to a second group (group 2). Six strains with the smallest average plaque sizes were separated into two subgroups (groups 3 and 4) based on their different genetic clustering and disease severity in mice. Comparative genomics and network graph analysis suggested a separation of HSV1 isolates with attenuated vs. virulent phenotypes. These observations imply that virulence phenotypes of these strains may be traceable to genetic variation within the HSV1 population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah N Dweikat
- Department of Biology, University Park, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, USA
| | - Daniel W Renner
- Department of Biology, University Park, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, USA
| | - Christopher D Bowen
- Department of Biology, University Park, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, USA
| | - Moriah L Szpara
- Department of Biology, University Park, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
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Grinage E, Shukla D. Optineurin in ocular herpes infection. Exp Eye Res 2022; 219:109059. [PMID: 35390332 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herpes Simplex Virus-1 (HSV-1) is a neurotropic virus that can infect humans in the eye and travel to the trigeminal ganglion to establish latency. HSV-1 causes various disease states in both the primary and secondary sites of infection including the eye and the nervous system. This DNA virus exploits various adaptive measures to infect host cells, hijack host cell proteins, evade host immune response and spread from cell-to-cell to avoid immune detection. Recent data suggest that Optineurin (OPTN), a host protein, is a key restriction factor that prevents cell-to-cell spread of HSV-1 and guards against serious damage to the nervous system during infection. In recent years OPTN has gained increased attention because of its involvement in cellular mechanisms that promote homeostasis and prevent neurodegeneration. At the center of it all is the role OPTN plays as a receptor for selective autophagy. This review summarizes our latest understanding of the viral lifecycle, disease pathologies, and OPTN-mediated protective mechanisms during HSV-1 infection of the eye and the nervous system. We specifically highlight recent discoveries that implicate OPTN as crucial in the prevention of ocular and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Earon Grinage
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Illinois at Chicago, College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA.
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Zhu JY, Zhang X, Zheng X, Luo LL, Mao CY, Lin S, Ye J. Dry eye symptoms in interferon regulatory factor 3-deficient mice due to herpes simplex virus infection in harderian gland and lacrimal gland. Exp Eye Res 2022; 219:109053. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Heparanase-Induced Activation of AKT Stabilizes β-Catenin and Modulates Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling during Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Infection. mBio 2021; 12:e0279221. [PMID: 34749529 PMCID: PMC8576534 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02792-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Under pathological conditions like herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection, host-pathogen interactions lead to major reconstruction of the host protein network, which contributes to the dysregulation of signaling pathways and disease onset. Of note is the upregulation of a multifunctional host protein, heparanase (HPSE), following infection, which serves as a mediator in HSV-1 replication. In this study, we identify a novel function of HPSE and highlight it as a key regulator of β-catenin signal transduction. The regulatory role of HPSE on the activation, nuclear translocation, and signal transduction of β-catenin disrupts cellular homeostasis and establishes a pathogenic environment that promotes viral replication. Under normal physiological conditions, β-catenin is bound to a group of proteins, referred to as the destruction complex, and targeted for ubiquitination and, ultimately, degradation. We show that virus-induced upregulation of HPSE leads to the activation of Akt and subsequent stabilization and activation of β-catenin through (i) the release of β-catenin from the destruction complex, and (ii) direct phosphorylation of β-catenin at Ser552. This study also provides an in-depth characterization of the proviral role of β-catenin signaling during HSV-1 replication using physiologically relevant cell lines and in vivo models of ocular infection. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibitors of this pathway generated a robust antiviral state against multiple laboratory and clinical strains of HSV-1. Collectively, our findings assign a novel regulatory role to HPSE as a driver of β-catenin signaling in HSV-1 infection. IMPORTANCE Heparanase (HPSE) and β-catenin have independently been implicated in regulating key pathophysiological processes, including neovascularization, angiogenesis, and inflammation; however, the relationship between the two proteins has remained elusive thus far. For that reason, characterizing this relationship is crucial and can lead to the development of novel therapeutics. For HSV-1 specifically, current antivirals are not able to abolish the virus from the host, leaving patients susceptible to episodes of viral reactivation. Identifying a host-based intervention can provide a better alternative with enhanced efficacy and sustained relief.
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Karasneh GA, Kapoor D, Bellamkonda N, Patil CD, Shukla D. Protease, Growth Factor, and Heparanase-Mediated Syndecan-1 Shedding Leads to Enhanced HSV-1 Egress. Viruses 2021; 13:v13091748. [PMID: 34578329 DOI: 10.3390/v13091748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) and heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are considered important for the entry of many different viruses. Previously, we demonstrated that heparanase (HPSE), the host enzyme responsible for cleaving HS chains, is upregulated by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection. Higher levels of HPSE accelerate HS removal from the cell surface, facilitating viral release from infected cells. Here, we study the effects of overexpressing HPSE on viral entry, cell-to-cell fusion, plaque formation, and viral egress. We provide new information that higher levels of HPSE reduce syncytial plaque formation while promoting egress and extracellular release of the virions. We also found that transiently enhanced expression of HPSE did not affect HSV-1 entry into host cells or HSV-1-induced cell-to-cell fusion, suggesting that HPSE activation is tightly regulated and facilitates extracellular release of the maturing virions. We demonstrate that an HSPG-shedding agonist, PMA; a protease, thrombin; and a growth factor, EGF as well as bacterially produced recombinant heparinases resulted in enhanced HSV-1 release from HeLa and human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells. Our findings here underscore the significance of syndecan-1 functions in the HSV-1 lifecycle, provide evidence that the shedding of syndecan-1 ectodomain is another way HPSE works to facilitate HSV-1 release, and add new evidence on the significance of various HSPG shedding agonists in HSV-1 release from infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghadah A Karasneh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 W. Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Divya Kapoor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 W. Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Navya Bellamkonda
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 W. Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Chandrashekhar D Patil
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 W. Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Deepak Shukla
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 835 S. Wolcott, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1855 W. Taylor, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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