Testicular Cooling Associated With Testicular Torsion and its Detection by Infrared Thermography: An Experimental Study in Sheep

Testicular torsions in veterinary medicine

The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive comparison of spermatic cord torsion in domestic animals. Spermatic cord torsion leads to occlusion of testicular blood flow resulting in ischemia and tissue hypoxia. Spermatic cord torsion has been reported in all domestic mammals but dogs and horses are overrepresented. Abdominal pain (colic), anorexia, vomiting, lameness, and stiff gait are the most common clinical signs reported. The condition may be asymptomatic in cases of a low degree of spermatic cord torsion. In dogs, spermatic cord torsion is most commonly reported in undescended testes, which in some cases are neoplastic. However, in horses, spermatic cord torsion occurs more commonly in scrotal testes. Surgical treatment for spermatic cord torsion depends upon the degree and duration of torsion. If the affected testis is located within the scrotum and determined to still be viable, detorsion with orchidopexy can be performed. Orchiopexy of the unaffected scrotal testis is also recommended in stallions. If the affected testis cannot be salvaged, unilateral or bilateral orchidectomy is recommended. In all cases of spermatic cord torsion of an undescended testis, orchidectomy is recommended. Veterinarians should be aware of the clinical signs and treatment options for spermatic cord torsion in domestic mammals.

Use of Infrared Thermography during Ejaculation Process and Its Link with Semen Quality and Freezability in Dogs

Simple Summary

Scientific attention to infrared technology has grown over the last decade. Remote and non-invasive monitoring techniques are of great importance in discovering ejaculation response and future trends because of their role in vascular flux regulation. However, detailed information about its use in andrology has yet to be fully explained. Therefore, we aimed to reveal information about the amount of sperm to be obtained by observing stress levels with non-invasive eye temperature measurement, and the relationship between various reproductive temperature patterns and parameters of the animal’s various physiological conditions such as age, body condition, total ejaculation time and testicular volume.

Abstract

This study aimed to describe the thermal variation of external reproductive tracts during ejaculation in relation to sperm quality in dogs. Forty-six adult fertile dogs were monitored using a thermal camera before, during and after the semen collection, taking into account penile and scrotal temperatures as reproductive thermal patterns while eye and perianal temperatures were recorded as complementary thermal patterns of behavioral response. The parameters were classified depending on age (≤4 years and >4 years), body weight (BW) (≤75 kg and >75 kg), sperm concentration (CON) (≤300 million and >300 million), total testicular volume (TTV) (≤600 cm³ and >600 cm³) and total ejaculation time (TET) (≤800 s and >800 s) of the animals from which semen was collected successfully. Heavier males (p < 0.05) that have more consistent testicles (p < 0.01) as well as quicker ejaculate responders (p < 0.001) and lower scrotal temperature had better semen (Δ motility) freezability. The lower eye temperature prior to the ejaculation (p < 0.01), lower scrotal temperature following ejaculation (p < 0.01), and conversely, higher penile temperature during the ejaculation (p < 0.001) had a higher sperm concentration. Furthermore, the sperm freezability was negatively correlated with total ejaculation time (r = −0.39, p < 0.05) and sperm abnormalities were lower in the ejaculate of dogs having a higher temperature of the scrotum, bulbus and penis. In conclusion, infrared monitoring throughout semen collection in dogs can provide information on behavioral reactions during human manipulation, as well as semen quality and testicular functionality.

Effects of hypothermia and pentoxifylline on the adnexal torsion/detorsion injuries in a rat testis model

This study was designed to investigate the effects of separate and combined administration of hypothermia and pentoxifylline to preserve the effects on the testicles in an experimental model of testicular torsion/ detorsion injuries in rats. Forty male adult Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups, control, torsion/detorsion (TD), torsion/detorsion/hypothermia (TD+ICE), torsion/detorsion received of pentoxifylline (40mg/kg, ip) (TD+PTX) and torsion/detorsion/hypothermia/PTX (TD+ICE+PTX). Left testicular torsion (TT) was performed for 4 and half hours, and ice fragments have been used at the beginning of torsion. After the reperfusion period (a week), oxidative maker's serum levels, testosterone hormone, sperm parameters, and histopathological and gene expression evaluations have been performed. Significant adverse changes were observed in the TD group for histological variables, sperm count, oxidative marker, testosterone hormone, Bax, BCL2 and caspase-3 expression. The parameters studied in the group receiving PTX improved in comparison with the TD group, while macroscopical parameters of both the hypothermia and PTX+ICE groups were not different compared with the TD group. The results revealed that PTX, as an antioxidant component, was protective against testicular torsion, while hypothermia and hypothermia plus PTX did not exhibit this property, which may have been due to the duration of hypothermia (4 hr) or reperfusion period.

Smartphone Thermal Imaging in the Detection of Testicular Ischemia

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate smartphone thermal imaging as a point of care test in the detection of testicular ischemia. Thermal imaging detects the infrared (heat) pattern of an object and the technology is now available as an inexpensive attachment to smartphones.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Smartphone thermal imaging was studied as a point-of-care diagnostic test for testicular ischemia in an IACUC approved study that prioritized survival of all animal subjects. Thirty canines weighing over 12 kg were observed during elective neuter procedures with consent from owners. Randomization determined ligation of the right vs left spermatic cord. With both testicles remaining in the scrotum, blinded inspection was performed with a FLIR ONE Pro thermal imaging camera for smartphone use. The bilateral orchiectomy procedures were then completed as planned.

RESULTS

Within 11 minutes of ligation of the randomized spermatic cord, an obvious change in the thermal imaging pattern allowed for the correct diagnosis of the ischemic testicle in 30/30 (100%) of subjects in a blinded fashion. Temperature differences between testicles at the time of ischemia diagnosis ranged from 0.7°C to 3.7°C with an average difference of 1.79°C lower in the ischemic testicle (95% CI: [1.50, 2.08]). A thermal imaging evaluation of the testicles takes 30 seconds to perform.

CONCLUSION

Smartphone thermal imaging correctly diagnosed testicular ischemia in 100% of animal subjects in a blinded fashion. The clinical utility of this emerging point-of-care technique in the evaluation of testicular torsion is currently unknown.

Advances in infrared thermography: Surgical aspects, vascular changes, and pain monitoring in veterinary medicine

One of the main functions of infrared thermography (IRT) consists in detecting temperature changes in organisms caused by variations in surface blood circulation. IRT is a useful tool that has been used mainly as a diagnostic method for various stress-causing pathologies, though recent suggestions indicate that it can be used to assess the block quality of certain body regions. In the field of anaesthesiology, IRT has been applied to brachial and epidural blocks, while in algology, changes in surface blood circulation associated with sympathetic activity have been investigated. Thermography has also been employed to complement pain level scales based on the facial expressions of patients in critical condition, or after surgery. In addition, it has been used as a tool in research designed to evaluate different surgical procedures in human medicine, as in the case of surgical burrs for placing dental implants, where IRT helps assess the degree of heating associated with bone devascularisation, reduction in vascular perfusion as a consequence of stroke, and changes in the autonomous nervous system, or the degree of vascular changes in flaps applied to burn patients. In veterinary medicine, thermography has brought several benefits for animals in terms of evaluating lesions, diseases, and surgical procedures. The aim of this review is to evaluate how IRT can be used as a tool in surgical procedures, cases of vascular change, and pain monitoring in veterinary medicine with an emphasis on small animals.