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Wang S, Yang L, Bai G, Gu Y, Fan Q, Guan X, Yuan J, Liu J. A preliminary study on calcifying nanoparticles in dental plaque: Isolation, characterization, and potential mineralization mechanism. Clin Exp Dent Res 2024; 10:e885. [PMID: 38798048 PMCID: PMC11128756 DOI: 10.1002/cre2.885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Calcifying nanoparticles (CNPs), referred to as nanobacteria (NB), are recognized to be associated with ectopic calcification. This study aims to isolate and culture CNPs from the dental plaque of patients with periodontal disease and investigate their possible role in unravelling the aetiology of periodontal disease. MATERIAL AND METHODS Supragingival and subgingival plaques were sampled from 30 periodontitis patients for CNPs isolation and culture. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) content changes were tracked over time. Positive samples underwent thorough morphological identification via hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, Alizarin red S (ARS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The chemical composition of CNPs analysis involved calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) content determination, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). RESULTS The subgingival plaque dental group exhibited a higher CNPs isolation rate at 36.67% (11/30) compared to the supragingival dental plaque group at 66.67% (20/30). ALP activity varied among the positive, negative and control groups. Morphological observation characterized the CNPs as round, oval, and ellipsoid particles with Ca deposits. Chemical analysis revealed the Ca/P ratio was 0.6753. Hydroxyl, methyl, carbonate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, and dihydrogen phosphate were detected by FTIR; the main chemical components detected by XRD were hydroxyapatite and tricalcium phosphate. CONCLUSION CNPs were found in periodontitis-related dental plaque and exhibited the potential to develop calcified structures resembling dental calculus. However, the potential involvement of ALP in CNPs formation requires deeper exploration, as does the precise nature of its role and the interrelation with periodontitis demand a further comprehensive investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siwei Wang
- Department of Dental Implantology, The Affiliated Stomatological HospitalZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Lan Yang
- Department of Prosthodontics, The Affiliated Stomatological HospitalZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Guohui Bai
- Key Laboratory of Oral Disease of Higher Schools in Guizhou ProvinceZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Yu Gu
- Department of StomatologyZunyi Medical UniversityZhuhaiChina
| | - Qin Fan
- Department of Dental Implantology, The Affiliated Stomatological HospitalZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Xiaoyan Guan
- Department of Orthodontics, The Affiliated Stomatological HospitalZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Jie Yuan
- Department of Pain MedicineThe Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
| | - Jianguo Liu
- Key Laboratory of Oral Disease of Higher Schools in Guizhou ProvinceZunyi Medical UniversityZunyiChina
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Yaghobee S, Bayani M, Samiei N, Jahedmanesh N. What are the nanobacteria? BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2015.1052761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
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Khan A, Murphy AB. Updates on therapies for chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome. World J Pharmacol 2015; 4:1-16. [DOI: 10.5497/wjp.v4.i1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Revised: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostatitis comprises of a group of syndromes that affect almost 50% of men at least once in their lifetime and makeup the majority of visits to the Urology Clinics. After much debate, it has been divided into four distinct categories by National Institutes of Health namely (1) acute bacterial prostatitis; (2) chronic bacterial prostatitis; (3) chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) which is further divided into inflammatory and non-inflammatory CP/CPPS; and (4) asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis. CP/CPPS has been a cause of great concern for both patients and physicians because of the lack of presence of thorough information about the etiological factors along with the difficult-to-treat nature of the syndrome. For the presented manuscript an extensive search on PubMed was conducted for CP/CPPS aimed to present an updated review on the evaluation and treatment options available for patients with CP/CPPS. Several diagnostic criteria’s have been established to diagnose CP/CPPS, with prostatic/pelvic pain for at least 3 mo being the major classifying symptom along with the presence of lower urinary tract symptoms and/or ejaculatory pain. Diagnostic tests can help differentiate CP/CPPS from other syndromes that come under the heading of prostatitis by ruling out active urinary tract infection and/or prostatic infection with uropathogen by performing urine cultures, Meares-Stamey Four Glass Test, Pre- and Post-Massage Two Glass Test. Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis is confirmed through prostate biopsy done for elevated serum prostate-specific antigen levels or abnormal digital rectal examination. Researchers have been unable to link a single etiological factor to the pathogenesis of CP/CPPS, instead a cluster of potential etiologies including atypical bacterial or nanobacterial infection, autoimmunity, neurological dysfunction and pelvic floor muscle dysfunction are most commonly implicated. Initially monotherapy with anti-biotics and alpha adrenergic-blockers can be tried, but its success has only been observed in treatment naïve population. Other pharmacotherapies including phytotherapy, neuromodulatory drugs and anti-inflammatories achieved limited success in trials. Complementary and interventional therapies including acupuncture, myofascial trigger point release and pelvic floor biofeedback have been employed. This review points towards the fact that treatment should be tailored individually for patients based on their symptoms. Patients can be stratified phenotypically based on the UPOINT system constituting of Urinary, Psychosocial, Organ-specific, Infectious, Neurologic/Systemic and symptoms of muscular Tenderness and the treatment algorithm should be proposed accordingly. Treatment of CP/CPPS should be aimed towards treating local as well as central factors causing the symptoms. Surgical intervention can cause significant morbidity and should only be reserved for treatment-refractory patients that have previously failed to respond to multiple drug therapies.
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Kutikhin AG, Yuzhalin AE, Borisov VV, Velikanova EA, Frolov AV, Sakharova VM, Brusina EB, Golovkin AS. Calcifying nanoparticles: one face of distinct entities? Front Microbiol 2014; 5:214. [PMID: 24904533 PMCID: PMC4033009 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anton G Kutikhin
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia ; Department of Epidemiology, Kemerovo State Medical Academy Kemerovo, Russia ; Central Research Laboratory, Kemerovo State Medical Academy Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Arseniy E Yuzhalin
- Department of Oncology, Cancer Research UK and Medical Research Council Oxford Institute for Radiation Oncology, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Vadim V Borisov
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Elena A Velikanova
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Alexey V Frolov
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Vera M Sakharova
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Elena B Brusina
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia ; Department of Epidemiology, Kemerovo State Medical Academy Kemerovo, Russia
| | - Alexey S Golovkin
- Division of Experimental and Clinical Cardiology, Research Institute for Complex Issues of Cardiovascular Diseases under the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences Kemerovo, Russia
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Zhang H, Liu L, Yang Z, Pan J, Chen Z, Fang Q, Li W, Li L, Lu G, Zhou Z. P2X7 receptor mediates activation of microglial cells in prostate of chemically irritated rats. Int Braz J Urol 2013; 39:276-85. [PMID: 23683674 DOI: 10.1590/s1677-5538.ibju.2013.02.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Evidence shows that adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is involved in the transmission of multiple chronic pain via P2X7 receptor. This study was to investigate the P2X7 and microglial cells in the chronic prostatitis pain. MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats were divided into control group and chronic prostatitis group (n = 24 per group). A chronic prostatitis animal model was established by injecting complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) to the prostate of rats, and the thermal withdrawal latency (TWL) was detected on days 0, 4, 12 and 24 (n = 6 at each time point in each group). Animals were sacrificed and the pathological examination of the prostate, detection of mRNA expression of P2X7 and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (IBA-1) and measurement of content of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in the dorsal horn of L5-S2 spinal cord were performed on days 0, 4, 12 and 24. In addition, the content of TNF-α and IL-1β in the dorsal horn of L5-S2 spinal cord was measured after intrathecal injection of inhibitors of microglial cells and/or P2X7 for 5 days. RESULTS The chronic prostatitis was confirmed by pathological examination. The expression of P2X7 and IBA-1 and the content of TNF-α and IL-1β in rats with chronic prostatitis were significantly higher than those in the control group. On day 4, the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines became to increase, reaching a maximal level on day 12 and started to reduce on day 24, but remained higher than that in the control group. Following suppression of microglial cells and P2X7 receptor, the secretion of TNF-α and IL-1β was markedly reduced. CONCLUSION In chronic prostatitis pain, the microglial cells and P2X7 receptor are activated resulting in the increased expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in the L5-S2 spinal cord, which might attribute to the maintenance and intensification of pain in chronic prostatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heng Zhang
- Department of Urology; Department of Pathology and Department of Neurobiology, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Kumon H, Matsuura E, Nagaoka N, Yamamoto T, Uehara S, Araki M, Matsunami Y, Kobayashi K, Matsumoto A. Ectopic calcification: importance of common nanoparticle scaffolds containing oxidized acidic lipids. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2013; 10:441-50. [PMID: 24028895 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2013.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The term nanobacteria, sometimes referred to as nanobacteria-like particles (NLPs), is presently recognized as a misnomer for inert calcified nanoparticles. However, misinterpretation of its propagation as a living organism still continues. Ultrastructural and elemental analyses, combining immuno-electron microscopy with an original NLP isolate (P-17) derived from urinary stones, and an IgM monoclonal antibody (CL-15) raised against P-17 have now revealed that, oxidized lipids with acidified functional groups were key elements in NLP propagation. Lamellar structures composed of acidic/oxidized lipids provided structural scaffolds for carbonate apatite crystals. During in vitro culture, lipid peroxidation induced by γ-irradiation of FBS was a major cause of accelerated NLP propagation. In pathological tissue samples from hyperlipidemic atherosclerosis-prone mice, CL-15 co-localized with fatty plaques, macrophage infiltrates and osteocalcin staining of aortic valve lesions. These observations indicate that naturally occurring NLP composed of mineralo-oxidized lipids complexes are generated as by-products rather than etiological agents of chronic inflammation. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR The term "nanobacteria-like particles (NLPs)" is presently recognized as a misnomer for inert calcified nanoparticles as opposed to living organisms. This study convincingly demonstrates that naturally occurring NLPs composed of mineralo-oxidized lipid complexes are generated as by-products rather than etiological agents of chronic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromi Kumon
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan.
| | - Eiji Matsuura
- Department of Cell Chemistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Nagaoka
- Department of Oral Morphology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Toshio Yamamoto
- Department of Oral Morphology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shinya Uehara
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Motoo Araki
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Yukana Matsunami
- Department of Cell Chemistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kazuko Kobayashi
- Department of Cell Chemistry, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
| | - Akira Matsumoto
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan
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Chung H. Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome: What Are the Starting and Worsening Factors? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.14777/kjutii.2013.8.1.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Chung
- Department of Urology, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Chungju, Korea
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D'Hallewin M, Helle M, Garrier J, Bezdetnaya L, Guillemin F. Animal Models for Photodiagnosis and Photodynamic Therapy. Isr J Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201100074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Guo Y, Zhang D, Lu H, Luo S, Shen X. Association between calcifying nanoparticles and placental calcification. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:1679-86. [PMID: 22615531 PMCID: PMC3357051 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s29786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the possible contribution of calcifying nanoparticles to the pathogenesis of placental calcification. METHODS Calcified placental tissues and distal tissue samples were collected from 36 confirmed placental calcification cases. In addition, 20 normal placental tissue samples were obtained as a control group. All the tissue samples were cultured using special nanobacterial culture methods. The cultured calcifying nanoparticles were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and their growth was monitored by optical density (OD) at a wavelength of 650 nm. 16S rRNA gene expression of the cultured calcifying nanoparticles was also isolated and sequenced. RESULTS Novel calcifying nanoparticles wrapped with electron-dense shells between 50 nm to 500 nm in diameter were observed in the extracellular matrix of calcified placental tissues. They were detected in placental villi and hydroxyapatite crystals, and contained "nucleic acid-like materials". After isolation and four weeks of culture, 28 of 36 calcified placental tissue samples showed white granular precipitates attached to the bottom of the culture tubes. OD(650) measurements indicated that the precipitates from the calcified placental tissues were able to grow in culture, whereas no such precipitates from the control tissues were observed. The 16S rRNA genes were isolated from the cultured calcifying nanoparticles and calcified placental tissues, and their gene sequencing results implied that calcifying nanoparticles were novel nanobacteria (GenBank JF823648). CONCLUSION Our results suggest that these novel calcifying nanoparticles may play a role in placental calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Guo
- Molecular Medicine and Tumor Research Center, Chongqing Medical University, Yuzhong District, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
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Kutikhin AG, Brusina EB, Yuzhalin AE. The role of calcifying nanoparticles in biology and medicine. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:339-50. [PMID: 22287843 PMCID: PMC3266001 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s28069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcifying nanoparticles (CNPs) (nanobacteria, nanobacteria-like particles, nanobes) were discovered over 25 years ago; nevertheless, their nature is still obscure. To date, nobody has been successful in credibly determining whether they are the smallest self-replicating life form on Earth, or whether they represent mineralo-protein complexes without any relation to living organisms. Proponents of both theories have a number of arguments in favor of the validity of their hypotheses. However, after epistemological analysis carried out in this review, all arguments used by proponents of the theory about the physicochemical model of CNP formation may be refuted on the basis of the performed investigations, and therefore published data suggest a biological nature of CNPs. The only obstacle to establish CNPs as living organisms is the absence of a fairly accurately sequenced genome at the present time. Moreover, it is clear that CNPs play an important role in etiopathogenesis of many diseases, and this association is independent from their nature. Consequently, emergence of CNPs in an organism is a pathological, not a physiological, process. The classification and new directions of further investigations devoted to the role of CNPs in biology and medicine are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton G Kutikhin
- Department of Epidemiology, Kemerovo State Medical Academy, Kemerovo, Russian Federation.
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McClure MW. Chronic Prostatitis. Integr Med (Encinitas) 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4377-1793-8.00043-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kumon H, Matsumoto A, Uehara S, Abarzua F, Araki M, Tsutsui K, Tomochika KI. Detection and isolation of nanobacteria-like particles from urinary stones: long-withheld data. Int J Urol 2011; 18:458-65. [PMID: 21488976 DOI: 10.1111/j.1442-2042.2011.02763.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To report our experimental results on detection and isolation of nanobacteria-like particles (NLP) from urinary stone samples. METHODS From March 2001 to August 2003, 47 urinary stone samples from Japanese patients and 18 from Paraguayan patients were collected and used for compositional analysis, direct survey of NLP by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and their cultural isolation. For the isolation, culturing was carried out using strict aseptic techniques. Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium with 10% gamma-irradiated fetal bovine serum was used based on the original method described by Kajander and Ciftçioglu. RESULTS Positive NLP detection rates for Japanese and Paraguayan patient samples were 61.7% (29/47) and 66.7% (12/18), respectively. Positive NLP isolation rates for Japanese patient samples were 20.6% (7/34) and 20.0% (2/10) for Paraguayan patient samples. In the initial isolation, markedly different periods of incubation time were needed for each of the nine cases (6-220 days; median 36 days). Positive detection and isolation were obtained in stone samples with or without calcium phosphate. Growth modes and morphogenesis of NLP were divided into two phases; rod-shaped NLP was detected mainly as a floating form growing in culture medium and spherical NLP with a characteristic apatite shell was detected as an attached form growing on the surface of culture dishes. CONCLUSIONS Lifeless calcifying nanoparticles can be isolated from various human urinary stones, cultured in cell culture mediums and show two characteristic growth phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromi Kumon
- Department of Urology, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama, Japan.
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Kim TH, Kim HR, Myung SC. Detection of nanobacteria in patients with chronic prostatitis and vaginitis by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Korean J Urol 2011; 52:194-9. [PMID: 21461284 PMCID: PMC3065132 DOI: 10.4111/kju.2011.52.3.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE We aimed to investigate the detection of nanobacteria (NB) from expressed prostatic secretions (EPS) in patients with category III chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) and from vaginal swabs in patients with vaginitis by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and to evaluate the association between NB and Neisseria gonorrhea, Chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum (U. urealyticum), Mycoplasma hominis, Trichomonas vaginalis, and Mycoplasma genitalium. MATERIALS AND METHODS A group of 11 men attending a specialized CP/CPPS clinic and a group of 157 women who reported symptoms of lower genital tract infection were enrolled in this study. NB were detected by RT-PCR. A Seeplex Sexually Transmitted Disease Detection assay (Seegene Inc., Seoul, Korea) was used that could detect DNA for 6 types of sexually transmitted pathogens. RESULTS In EPS samples, the detection rate of NB in patients with CP/CPPS was 9.1%, and 9 (5.7%) of 157 vaginitis patients showed positive results in RT-PCR for NB in vaginal swabs. Associations observed among the 7 microorganisms included 6 (54.5%) patients who tested positive on EPS and 75 (47.8%) patients who tested positive on vaginal swabs. Five patients with vaginitis were found to have monoinfection of NB (6.7%). CONCLUSIONS We found that conventional RT-PCR for NB was rapid, simple, low in cost, and easily available for the detection of NB, and that NB may be a possible etiological factor for vaginitis and CP/CPPS. The prevalence of U. urealyticum among the four patients with NB coinfection was 75%; the presence of U. urealyticum might therefore raise suspicion for nanobacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Hyoung Kim
- Department of Urology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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